ASTM E2278-13(2019)

This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
Designation: E2278 − 13 (Reapproved 2019)
Standard Guide for
Use of Coal Combustion Products (CCPs) for Surface Mine
Reclamation: Revegetation and Mitigation of Acid Mine
Drainage
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E2278; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope 1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
1.1 This guide covers the beneficial use of coal combustion
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
products (CCPs) for abatement of acid mine drainage and
priate safety, health, and environmental practices and deter-
revegetation for surface mine reclamation applications related
mine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
to area mining, contour mining, and mountaintop removal
1.8 This international standard was developed in accor-
mining. It does not apply to underground mine reclamation
dance with internationally recognized principles on standard-
applications. There are many important differences in physical
ization established in the Decision on Principles for the
and chemical characteristics that exist among the various types
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recom-
of CCPs available for use in mine reclamation. CCPs proposed
mendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical
foreachprojectmustbeinvestigatedthoroughlytodesignCCP
Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
placement activities to meet the project objectives. This guide
provides procedures for consideration of engineering,
2. Referenced Documents
economic, and environmental factors in the development of
2.1 ASTM Standards:
such applications.
C188 Test Method for Density of Hydraulic Cement
1.2 The utilization of CCPs under this guide is a component
C311 Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Fly Ash or
of a pollution prevention program; Guide E1609 describes
Natural Pozzolans for Use in Portland-Cement Concrete
pollution prevention activities in more detail. Utilization of
C400 Test Methods for Quicklime and Hydrated Lime for
CCPs in this manner conserves land, natural resources, and
Neutralization of Waste Acid
energy.
D75 Practice for Sampling Aggregates
1.3 This guide applies to CCPs produced primarily from the D420 Guide for Site Characterization for Engineering De-
combustion of coal. sign and Construction Purposes
D422 Test Method for Particle-SizeAnalysis of Soils (With-
1.4 The testing, engineering, and construction practices for
drawn 2016)
using CCPs in mine reclamation are similar to generally
D653 Terminology Relating to Soil, Rock, and Contained
accepted practices for using other materials, including cement
Fluids
and soils, in mine reclamation.
D698 Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Character-
1.5 Regulations governing the use of CCPs vary by state.
istics of Soil Using Standard Effort (12,400 ft-lbf/ft (600
The user of this guide has the responsibility to determine and
kN-m/m ))
comply with applicable regulations.
D854 Test Methods for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by
Water Pycnometer
1.6 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded
D1195 Test Method for Repetitive Static Plate Load Tests of
as standard. The values given in parentheses are mathematical
Soils and Flexible Pavement Components, for Use in
conversions to SI units that are provided for information only
Evaluation and Design of Airport and Highway Pave-
and are not considered standard.
ments
1 2
ThisguideisunderthejurisdictionofASTMCommitteeE50onEnvironmental For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
Assessment, Risk Management and CorrectiveAction and is the direct responsibil- contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
ity of Subcommittee E50.03 on Beneficial Use. Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
Current edition approved Sept. 1, 2019. Published September 2019. Originally the ASTM website.
approved in 2004. Last previous edition approved in 2013 as E2278–13. DOI: The last approved version of this historical standard is referenced on
10.1520/E2278-13R19. www.astm.org.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
E2278 − 13 (2019)
D1452 Practice for Soil Exploration and Sampling byAuger Long-Term Leaching Procedure (LTL)(4)
Borings
D1557 Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Character-
3. Terminology
istics of Soil Using Modified Effort (56,000 ft-lbf/ft
3.1 Definitions—For definitions related to coal combustion
(2,700 kN-m/m ))
products, see Terminology E2201. For definitions related to
D1586 Test Method for Standard PenetrationTest (SPT) and
geotechnical properties see Terminology D653.
Split-Barrel Sampling of Soils
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
D1883 Test Method for California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of
Laboratory-Compacted Soils 3.2.1 acid-forming materials—earth materials that contain
sulfide mineral or other materials, which, if exposed to air,
D2166 Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength
of Cohesive Soil water, or weathering processes, will produce acids that may
result in acid drainage.
D2216 Test Methods for Laboratory Determination of Water
(Moisture) Content of Soil and Rock by Mass
3.2.2 basicity factor—a measure of alkalinity which can be
D2435 Test Methods for One-Dimensional Consolidation
used for comparing relative neutralization power of materials.
Properties of Soils Using Incremental Loading
It is determined as grams of calcium oxide equivalents per
D3080 Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils Under
kilogram of material.
Consolidated Drained Conditions
3.2.3 bench—a ledge, shelf or terrace formed in the contour
D3550 Practice for Thick Wall, Ring-Lined, Split Barrel,
method of strip mining or formed in surface operations of
Drive Sampling of Soils
underground coal mining.
D3877 Test Methods for One-Dimensional Expansion,
Shrinkage, and Uplift Pressure of Soil-Lime Mixtures
3.2.4 disturbed area—thoselandsthathavebeenaffectedby
(Withdrawn 2017)
surface mining and reclamation operations, or by surface
D3987 Practice for Shake Extraction of Solid Waste with
operations of underground coal mining.
Water
3.2.5 final grade—the finished elevation of any surface
D4253 Test Methods for Maximum Index Density and Unit
disturbance prior to replacement of topsoil.
Weight of Soils Using a Vibratory Table
3.2.6 internal erosion—piping; the progressive removal of
D4254 Test Methods for Minimum Index Density and Unit
soil particles from a mass by percolating water, leading to the
Weight of Soils and Calculation of Relative Density
development of channels.
D4448 Guide for Sampling Ground-Water Monitoring Wells
D4767 Test Method for Consolidated Undrained Triaxial
3.2.7 overburden—all of the earth and other materials,
Compression Test for Cohesive Soils
excluding topsoil, which lie above a natural deposit of coal and
D4972 Test Methods for pH of Soils
also means such earth and other material after removal from
D5084 Test Methods for Measurement of Hydraulic Con-
their natural state in the process of strip mining.
ductivity of Saturated Porous Materials Using a Flexible
3.2.8 permeability, n—the capacity to conduct liquid or gas.
Wall Permeameter
It is measured as the proportionality constant, k, between flow
D5092 Practice for Design and Installation of Groundwater
velocity, v, and hydraulic gradient, i; v = ki.
Monitoring Wells
3.2.9 productivity—the vegetative yield produced by a unit
D5239 Practice for Characterizing Fly Ash for Use in Soil
Stabilization area for a unit of time.
D5759 Guide for Characterization of Coal Fly Ash and
3.2.10 recharge capacity—the ability of the soils and under-
Clean Coal Combustion Fly Ash for Potential Uses
lying materials to allow precipitation and run-off to infiltrate
D5851 Guide for Planning and Implementing aWater Moni-
and reach the zone of saturation.
toring Program
3.2.11 soil horizons—contrasting layers of soil lying one
E1527 Practice for Environmental SiteAssessments: Phase I
below the other, parallel or nearly parallel to the land surface.
Environmental Site Assessment Process
Soil horizons are differentiated on the basis of field character-
E1609 Guide for Development and Implementation of a
istics and laboratory data. The three major soil horizons are:
Pollution Prevention Program (Withdrawn 2010)
E2201 Terminology for Coal Combustion Products
3.2.11.1 A horizon—the uppermost layer in the soil profile
often called the surface soil. It is the part of the soil in which
2.2 Other Methods:
organicmatterismostabundant,andwhereleachingofsoluble
EPA Method 1312 Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Proce-
or suspended particles is the greatest.
dure (SPLP)(1)
EPA Method 1320 Multiple Extraction Procedure (MEP)(2)
3.2.11.2 B horizon—the layer immediately beneath the
EPA Method Monofill Waste Extraction Procedure
A-horizon and often called the subsoil. This middle layer
(MWEP)(3)
commonly contains more clay, iron, or aluminum than theAor
Synthetic Ground Water Leaching Procedure (SGLP)(4)
C-horizons.
3.2.11.3 C horizon—the deepest layer of the soil profile. It
consists of loose material or weathered rock that is relatively
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of
this standard. unaffected by biologic activity.
E2278 − 13 (2019)
3.2.12 spoil—overburden that has been removed during 4.2.1.3 Specific Gravity—Specific gravity is the ratio of the
surface mining. weightinairofagivenvolumeofsolidsatastatedtemperature
to the weight in air of an equal volume of distilled water at a
3.2.13 stabilize—any method used to control movement of
stated temperature. The particle specific gravity of fly ash is
soil, spoil piles, or areas of disturbed earth and includes
relatively low compared to that of natural materials, and
increasing bearing capacity, increasing shear strength,
generally ranges from 2.1 to 2.6.
draining, compacting, or revegetating.
4.2.1.4 Grain-Size Distribution—Grain-size distribution de-
3.2.14 water table—the upper surface of saturation, where
scribes the proportion of various particle sizes present in a
the body of ground water is not confined by an overlying
material. Fly ash is a uniformly-graded product with spherical,
impermeable zone.The seasonal high water table is the highest
very fine grained particles.
elevation that ground water reaches within the year.
4.2.1.5 Moisture Content—Moisture content is the ratio of
4. Significance and Use
the mass of water contained in the pore spaces of soil or rock
material to the solid mass of particles in that material,
4.1 General—CCPs can effectively be used to reclaim
expressed as a percentage. CCPs have almost no moisture
surface mines (5-10). First, CCPs are ideally suited for use in
when first collected after the combustion of coal. Power plant
numerous reclamation applications. Any type of CCP may be
operators sometimes add moisture to facilitate transport and
evaluated for use in mine reclamation. Project specific testing
handling, a process termed “conditioning.”
is necessary to ensure that the CCPs selected for use on a given
4.2.1.6 Coeffıcient of Permeability—Permeability is the ca-
project will meet the project objectives. Second, the use of
pacity of a material to transmit a liquid.When compacted to its
CCPs can save money because they are available in bulk
maximum dry density, fly ash can have permeabilities ranging
quantities and reduce expenditures for the manufacture and
-3 2 -4 -7
from 10 to 10 gpd/ft (10 to 10 cm/s). These permeabili-
purchase of Portland cement or quicklime. Third, large-scale
ties are comparable to natural silty soils.
use of CCPs for mine reclamation conserves valuable landfill
4.2.2 Chemical Properties:
space by recycling a valuable product to abate acid mine
drainage and reduce the potential for mine subsidence, pro- 4.2.2.1 Elemental Composition—The major elemental com-
ponents of CCPs are silica, aluminum, iron, calcium,
vided that the CCP is environmentally and technically suitable
for the desired use. The availability of CCPs makes it possible magnesium, sodium, potassium, and sulfur.These elements are
to reclaim abandoned mineland that could not otherwise be present in various amounts and combinations dependent pri-
reclaimed. The potential for leaching constituents contained in marily on the coal and type of CCP. The elements combine to
CCPs should be evaluated to ensure that there is no adverse form amorphous (glassy) or crystalline phases. Trace constitu-
ents may include elements such as arsenic, boron, cadmium,
environmental impact.
chromium, copper, chlorine, mercury, manganese,
4.2 Physical and Chemical Properties and Behavior of
molybdenum, selenium, or zinc.
CCPs—Fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag, FGD material and
4.2.2.2 Phase Associations—The primary elemental con-
FBC ash, or combinations thereof, can be used for mine
stituents of CCPs are present either as amorphous (glassy)
reclamation. Each of these materials typically exhibits general
phases or crystalline phases. Coal combustion fly ash is
physicalandchemicalpropertiesthatmustbeconsideredinthe
typically 70+ % amorphous material. FGD and FBC products
design of a mine reclamation project using CCPs. The specific
are primarily crystalline, and the crystalline phases typically
properties of these materials vary from source to source so
include lime (CaO), portlandite (Ca(OH) ), hannebachite
environmental and engineering performance testing is recom-
(CaSO · ⁄2 H O), and forms of calcium sulfate.
3 2
mended for the material(s) or combinations to be used in mine
4.2.2.3 Free Lime Content—Free lime content varies among
reclamation projects.
CCP sources and other potential activators (for example, lime
4.2.1 Physical Properties:
kiln dust, cement kiln dust, quicklime, or Portland cement).
4.2.1.1 Unit Weight—Unit weight is the weight per unit
Variability of free lime content in CCP sources is due to the
volumeofmaterial.Flyashhasalowdryunitweight,typically
type and efficiency of the emissions control technology that is
about 50 to 100 pcf (8 to 16 kN/m ). Bottom ash is also
used. FBC products typically contain up to 10 % free lime,
typically lighter than coarse grained soils of similar gradation.
while most Class F fly ash has no free lime content. The free
Stabilized FGD material from a wet scrubber and FGD
lime content of other potential activators is also variable. For
material from a dry scrubber are also relatively lightweight,
example, cement kiln dust typically ranges from 20 to 30 %
with unit weights similar to fly ash.
free lime whereas quicklime contains 100 % free lime.
4.2.1.2 Strength—Shear strength is the maximum resistance
4.2.2.4 PozzolanicActivity—Most CCPs, with the exception
of a material to shearing stresses. The relatively high shear
of FGD material, are characterized as pozzolans due to the
strength of fly ash is beneficial for CCP flowable fill formula-
presence of siliceous or siliceous and aluminous materials that
tions requiring strengths sufficient to prevent mine subsidence.
in themselves possess little or no cementitious value but will,
The shear strength of non-self-hardening fly ash is primarily
in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture,
the result of internal friction. Cementitious CCPs experience a
chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary tempera-
cementing action that is measured as cohesion and increases
tures to form compounds possessing cementitious properties.
over time, which results in high compressive strength. Uncon-
fined compressive strengths in excess of 1000 psi can be 4.2.2.5 Buffer Capacity—The buffer capacity of the CCP is
achieved for cementitious CCPs. important in maintaining the high pH that generally is a
E2278 − 13 (2019)
requirement for neutralizing acidic materials such as acid mine Congress as required by the Bevill Amendment to RCRA. At
drainage or for minimizing acid formation from acid forming the conclusion of the first phase in 1993, EPA issued a formal
materials. The CCP must have enough buffer capacity to regulatory determination that the characteristics and manage-
maintain the pH of the treated areas so the area remains stable ment of the four large-volume fossil fuel combustion waste
over time and under environmental stresses. Test Methods streams (that is, fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag, and flue gas
C400 can be applied to evaluate the buffer capacity of the CCP. emission control waste) do not warrant hazardous waste
Determine the basicity factor for the CCP as noted in Test regulation under RCRAand that utilization practices for CCPs
Method B of Test Methods C400. appear to be safe. In addition, EPA “encourage[d] the utiliza-
tion of coal combustion by-products and support[ed] state
4.3 Environmental Considerations:
efforts to promote utilization in an environmentally beneficial
4.3.1 Regulatory Framework:
manner.” In the second phase of the study, EPAfocused on the
4.3.1.1 Federal—TheU.S.DepartmentoftheInteriorOffice
by-products generated from FBC boiler units and the use of
of Surface Mining (OSM) is charged with the responsibility of
CCPs from FBC and conventional boiler units for mine
ensuring that the national requirements for protecting the
reclamation, among other things. Following completion of the
environment during coal mining are met and making sure the
study, EPA issued a regulatory determination that again con-
land is reclaimed after it is mined. When the use of CCPs
cluded that hazardous waste regulation of these combustion
happens at surface coal mines, state or federal coal-mining
residues was not warranted. However, EPA also decided to
regulators are involved to the extent that SMCRA (Surface
develop national solid waste regulatory standards for CCPs,
Mining Control and Reclamation Act) requires the mine
including standards for placement of CCPs in surface or
operator to ensure that:
underground mines, either under RCRA, SMCRA, or a com-
(1) All toxic materials are treated, buried, and compacted,
bination of the two programs (65 CFR 32214, May 22, 2000).
or otherwise disposed of, in a manner designed to prevent
4.3.1.2 State and Local—There is considerable variation in
contamination of ground or surface water (30 CFR 816/
state-mandated permitting and other regulatory requirements
817.41).
for CCP utilization. Some states have specific beneficial use
(2) The proposed land use does not present any actual or
policies, while other states have no regulations or guidance
probable threat of water pollution (30 CFR 816/817.133).
addressing beneficial use.Although the NEPA(National Envi-
(3) The permit application contains a detailed description
ronmental Policy Act) strictly applies only to federally funded
of the measures to be taken during mining and reclamation to
projects, many states have similar mechanisms for assessing
ensure the protection of the quality and quantity of surface and
the environmental impacts of non-Federal projects. These
ground water systems, both on- and off-site, from adverse
mechanismsmayrequirestatepermitsthataddressanyorallof
effects of the mining and reclamation process (30 CFR 780.21
the following issues: wetlands/waterways, National Pollutant
and Sections 401.402, or 404 of the Clean Water Act).
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) discharge, under-
(4) The rights of present users of such water are protected
ground injection, erosion and sediment control, air quality
(30 CFR 816/817.41).
considerations, and storm water management.
(5) Any disposal of CCPs at mine sites must be in
4.3.2 Water Quality—When planning to use CCPs for mine
accordance with those standards and with applicable solid
reclamation, one should consider the potential impacts on
waste disposal requirements (30 CFR 816/817.89).
ground water and surface water to ensure protection of human
SMCRA gives primary responsibility for regulating surface
health and the environment.
coal mine reclamation to the states, and 24 coal-producing
4.3.2.1 Ground Water—The design and implementation of a
states have chosen to exercise that responsibility. On federal
mine reclamation project should consider the potential ground
lands and Indian reservations (Navajo, Hopi, and Crow) and in
water impacts of CCPs to ensure the protection of human
the coal states that have not set up their own regulatory
health and the environment. Considerable research has been
programs (Tennessee and Washington), OSM issues the coal
conducted to assess and predict the potential impacts of CCP
mine permits, conducts the inspections, and handles the en-
utilization on ground water quality. An assessment of ground
forcement responsibilities. As a result of the activities associ-
water quality impacts should be performed by a qualified
ated with the SMCRA, coal mine operators now reclaim as
professional and should take into account project-specific
they mine, and mined lands are no longer abandoned without
considerations such as composition of CCPs, the typical
proper reclamation. OSM also collects and distributes funds
leachability of CCPs, presence of acid forming materials or
from a tax on coal production to reclaim mined lands that were
acid mine drainage, placement of CCPs relative to the ground
abandoned without being reclaimed before 1977. OSM has a
water table, rates of infiltration, the type of placement used for
Coal Combustion Residues Management Program that focuses
the CCP, and constituent migration, attenuation in ground
on providing expert technical information on the use of CCPs
water,andlocationofsensitivereceptors(thatis,wells).Where
in mine reclamation for the mining industry, regulatory
protection of ground water is a special concern, the leaching
agencies, and other stakeholders. Use of CCPS in reclamation
characteristics of the CCP should be evaluated as part of the
procedures should be proposed in the mining permit applica-
assessment of constituent migration and attenuation. Consid-
tion if possible, detailing the type and characteristics of the
eration should be given to the leachability of the CCP in the
proposed CCP and the specific beneficial use for the location
presence of AMD.
proposed. In 1999, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) completed a two-phased study of CCPs for the U.S. NOTE 1—It is highly recommended that up-gradient and down-gradient
E2278 − 13 (2019)
wells be installed to determine background groundwater conditions prior
geologic and hydrogeologic investigation to characterize the
to CCP placement. Then, following placement of CCPs, periodic moni-
subsurface and mine conditions. The degree to which these
toring of these wells should be done to determine any potential ground-
activities are needed to support the engineering design will
water impact.]
vary for each mine site, depending upon whether the sites are
4.3.2.2 Surface Water—CCPs may affect surface water bod-
abandoned or active. Practice E1527 may be applied whenever
ies during and after placement activities as a result of erosion
a real estate transaction is involved.
and sediment transport. The engineering and construction
5.2 Access—In most cases, reclamation procedures will be
practices recommended to minimize these effects on surface
included in the mining permit, and in active mining and
waters (in accordance with the requirements of the 30 CFR
816.43 through 816–49 and any applicable federal or state associated reclamation, access to the site and associated areas
of potential mining impact will be available for appropriate
permit) include storing the CCPs in stockpiles employing
effective storm water management controls to maximize runoff reclamation activities. Consideration of physical access to the
and minimize run-on. Impacts could also be minimized by area for reclamation with CCPs needs to include roads for
limiting size of active working face of area being reclaimed. hauling/delivering the CCP to the site and adequate area for
placing, mixing, compacting, and otherwise handling the CCP
4.3.3 Air Quality—When planning to use CCPs for mine
reclamation, one should consider the potential impacts to air and other materials at the site.
quality including dusting and emissions.
5.3 Geologic and Hydrogeologic Investigation—The site
4.3.3.1 Dust Control—Dusting must be controlled during
subsurface conditions must be understood. This typically
the transport and handling of CCPs in order to avoid fugitive
involves a review of mine maps and other available informa-
dust and to ensure worker safety. Dust control measures
tion about the site; a site rec
...