SIST-TP CEN/TR 15441:2007

SLOVENSKI STANDARD
SIST-TP CEN/TR 15441:2007
01-marec-2007
Trdno alternativno gorivo - Smernice za varovanje zdravja na delovnem mestu
Solid recovered fuels - Guidelines on occupational health aspects
Feste Sekundärbrennstoffe - Leitlinien über berufsbezogene Gesundheitsaspekte
Combustibles solides de récupération - Lignes directrices relatives a la santé au travail
Ta slovenski standard je istoveten z: CEN/TR 15441:2006
ICS:
13.100 Varnost pri delu. Industrijska Occupational safety.
higiena Industrial hygiene
75.160.10 Trda goriva Solid fuels
SIST-TP CEN/TR 15441:2007 en
2003-01.Slovenski inštitut za standardizacijo. Razmnoževanje celote ali delov tega standarda ni dovoljeno.

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TECHNICAL REPORT
CEN/TR 15441
RAPPORT TECHNIQUE
TECHNISCHER BERICHT
October 2006
ICS 13.100; 75.160.10

English Version
Solid recovered fuels - Guidelines on occupational health
aspects
Combustibles solides de récupération - Lignes directrices Feste Sekundärbrennstoffe - Leitlinien über
relatives à la santé au travail berufsbezogene Gesundheitsaspekte
This Technical Report was approved by CEN on 13 May 2006. It has been drawn up by the Technical Committee CEN/TC 343.
CEN members are the national standards bodies of Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France,
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania,
Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom.
EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION
COMITÉ EUROPÉEN DE NORMALISATION
EUROPÄISCHES KOMITEE FÜR NORMUNG
Management Centre: rue de Stassart, 36  B-1050 Brussels
© 2006 CEN All rights of exploitation in any form and by any means reserved Ref. No. CEN/TR 15441:2006: E
worldwide for CEN national Members.

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CEN/TR 15441:2006 (E)
Contents Page
Foreword.3
Introduction .4
1 Scope .5
2 References.5
3 Terms and definitions .5
4 Health risk factors.7
5 Workplace related health risks in the life-cycle of solid recovered fuels.12
6 European and national regulations concerning protection of occupational safety and
health related to SRF.13
7 Measures to reduce risks of occupational safety and health .14
8 Conclusion and recommendations.22
Annex A (informative) Further health effects caused by biological agents .23
Annex B (informative) Informative data sheet for transport, storage and handling of SRF (model).25
Bibliography .30

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Foreword
This document (CEN/TR 15441:2006) has been prepared by Technical Committee CEN/TC 343 “Solid
recovered fuels”, the secretariat of which is held by SFS.
This informative Technical Report was prepared by CEN/TC 343 Solid recovered fuel, working group 3 –
Sampling, sample reduction and supplementary methods. It was produced under the Mandate M/325 to CEN
on solid recovered fuels to provide the European Commission with a report on aspects of occupational safety
and health regarding the different stages of SRF production and use in order to decide whether there is a
need to develop a referring standard.
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CEN/TR 15441:2006 (E)
Introduction
Production, handling, storage, trade, sampling or analysis of SRF can be accompanied with certain health
risks, not only by hazardous chemical products, but by biological agents, too. In addition, the risk of
concomitance of hazardous waste in the input material cannot be excluded. These risks will be described in
this Technical Report.
The safety data sheet (SDS) for chemical products due to ISO 11014-1 is a means of transferring essential
hazard information (including information on transport, handling, storage and emergency actions) from the
supplier of a chemical product to the recipient of this product. For non-hazardous substances or products
there is a gap in information duties. Solid recovered fuels are derived from non-hazardous types of waste, so
prima facie there seems to be no need for preparing a SDS for SRF. In addition, the SDS due to ISO 11014-1
would not cover environmental or health risks in the stage of SRF production.
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CEN/TR 15441:2006 (E)
1 Scope
This Technical Report considers aspects of occupational safety and health within the scope of CEN/TC 343:
production and trade of solid recovered fuels.
2 Normative references
Not applicable
3 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.
3.1
actinomycete
0,5 µm to 1,5 µm long, gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria that form long threads; their cells are also called
“spores”
3.2
bacteria (sing. bacterium)
simple prokaryotic micro-organism, mainly formed as balls or straight, curved or curled rods, with a width less
than 1 µm and a length of 1 µm to 5 µm, some of them forming endospores to resist adverse environmental
conditions like UV radiation, heat, dryness and chemical disinfectants
3.3
biological agent
micro-organisms, including those which have been genetically modified, cell cultures and human
endoparasites, which may be able to provoke any infection, allergy or toxicity
3.4
colony forming unit (CFU)
descendants of a single or of several agglutinated micro-organisms growing on a solid culture medium
showing a typical appearance in colony form and often in colony colour, too
3.5
dust
solid particles dispersed into the air
3.6
endotoxin
degradation product of gram-negative bacteria
3.7
endotoxin unit (EU)
endotoxin activity; 1 ng endotoxin corresponds to 2 EU - 50 EU, in dependence on the reference standard
3.8
exogenic-allergic alveolitis (EAA)
allergic reaction to exposure especially to thermoactinomycetes, can become chronic or fatal; also known as
farmer’s lung

3.9
exposure risk
risk of exposure to biological agents, chemical substances or other risk factors like heavy metals, dust or fire
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3.10
fungi (sing. fungus)
eukaryotic, unicellular to filamentous organism that produce extracellular enzymes and absorb their nutrition;
fungal cells form threads (molds) or chains of bubbles (yeasts) up to 10 µm in diameter
3.11
germ
endemic or opportunistic pathogen
3.12
inspirable dust
particles in the region of 7 µm to 20 µm that can penetrate the bronchioles
3.13
micro-organism
microbiological entity, cellular or non-cellular, capable of replication or of transferring genetic material
3.14
mold (mould)
fungal threads ("hyphae") forming a weave ("mycelium”), which builds up spore carriers (“conidiophores”), that
release the 2 µm to 8 µm small asexual fungal spores (“conidia”), which are spread by the air
3.15
MVOC
microbial volatile organic compounds, mainly produced by molds and bacteria, like dimetyldisulfid, isobutanol,
1-octen-3-ol, 3-methyl-1-butanol, 3-methylfuran and 3-octanone
3.16
mycotoxin
toxins formed by fungi, like aflatoxin, ochratoxin and others
3.17
ODTS (organic dust toxic syndrome)
pulmonary mycotoxicosis, non-allergic, also known as grain fever, primarily caused by inhalation of microbially
contaminated dust and under others endotoxins
3.18
PM , PM
10 2,5
particulate matter with a diameter of 10 µm respectively 2,5 µm, summarized as fine dust
3.19
primary measures
serve for direct prevention and elimination of emission at the source
3.20
protease
enzyme which decomposes proteins by breaking the linkage between amino acids
3.21
pulmonary alveoli
terminal parts of the lung, where the gas exchange between alveolar air and pulmonary capillary blood takes
place
3.22
respirable dust (RD)
particles in the region of 0,5 µm to 7 µm (50 % cut-point of 4 µm) that can penetrate to the pulmonary alveoli
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3.23
secondary measures
technical, organisational and personal-related measures to reduce employees' exposure to biological agents
or hazardous substances
3.24
yeast
fungal cells forming chains of bubbles
4 Health risk factors
4.1 Exposure to health risk factors
Employees have contact to SRF and its components at different workplaces. Therefore, there may be an
exposure to biological agents, chemical substances or other health risk factors like heavy metals, dust or fire
risk, see Table 1.
Table 1 — Exposure to health risk factors at different workplaces in the life-cycle of SRF
Biological Dust / fine Allergenic Risk of fire
Potential exposure to MVOC/ VOC
agents dust chemicals or explosion
Production yes yes yes yes yes
Storage yes yes yes yes yes
Handling yes yes yes yes possible
Trade possible possible possible possible possible
Sampling yes possible yes yes possible
Analysis yes possible yes yes possible

4.2 Biological agents
4.2.1 Definition and description
4.2.1.1 General
Biological agents, in the meaning of Directive 2000/54/EC on the protection of workers from risks related to
exposure to biological agents at work, include mainly micro-organisms like bacteria, fungi (yeasts, molds) and
viruses, and also, genetically modified micro-organisms (GMO), cell cultures and human endoparasites which
may be able to provoke any infection, allergy or toxicity. As several microbial metabolic and degradation
products are able to cause such reactions in man, they are covered by the defintion of “biological agent”, too.
With regard to a potential exposure at working places in the SRF life-cycle, the following biological agents are
of special interest:
 bacteria;
 fungi;
 microbial metabolic and destruction products:
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 endotoxins;
 glucans;
 mycotoxins;
 microbial volatile organic compounds (MVOC).
4.2.1.2 Bacteria
Bacteria do not have a real nucleus with a nucleus membrane and chromosomes, therefore they are called
“procaryotes”. Their cells are mainly formed as balls or straight, curved or curled rods, with a width less than
1 µm and a length of 1 µm to 5 µm. Due to their behaviour in a special staining procedure, they are
distinguished into Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Under optimum living conditions, bacteria can
multiply very rapidly by cell division. Some bacteria form endospores to resist adverse environmental
conditions like UV radiation, heat, dryness and chemical disinfectants. The very small cells of actinomycetes
(0,5 µm to 1,5 µm long, Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria that form long threads) are also called “spores”.
4.2.1.3 Fungi
In contrast to bacteria, fungi have real nuclei and chromosomes and therefore belong to the “Eucaryotes”
group. Fungal cells form threads (molds) or chains of bubbles (yeasts) up to 10 µm in diameter. Fungal
threads (“hyphae”) form a weave (“mycelium”), which builds up spore carriers (“conidiophores”). These
carriers release the 2 µm to 8 µm small asexual fungal spores (“conidia”), which are spread by the air.
4.2.1.4 Microbial metabolic and destruction products
Several microbial metabolic and destruction products are capable of causing an allergic or toxic effect in
exposed people, see Table 2.
Table 2 — Health related microbial metabolic and destruction products
Substances Description
Endotoxins Endotoxins are part of the outer membrane of the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria.
Endotoxins are invariably associated with Gram-negative bacteria whether the
organisms are pathogens or not. Although the term "endotoxin" is occasionally used to
refer to any cell-associated bacterial toxin, it is properly reserved to refer to the
lipopolysaccharide complex associated with the outer membrane of Gram-negative
bacteria such as E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Pseudomonas, Neisseria, Haemophilus,
and other leading pathogens. Endotoxins remain associated with the cell wall until
disintegration of the bacteria.
Glucans (1Æ3)-β-D-glucan is a polyglucose compound in the cell wall of fungi and some plants
and bacteria, which is released during disintegration of the cells.
Mycotoxins Some fungi produce mycotoxins which have a high toxicity to humans, like Aflatoxin
produced by Aspergillus flavus or Ochratoxin produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium
species.
Microbial Some micro-organisms produce microbial volatile organic compounds (MVOC). Up to
volatile now, about 30 MVOC produced by molds have been identified. The most important are
organic dimetyldisulfid, isobutanol, 1-octen-3-ol, 3-methyl-1-butanol, 3-methylfuran and 3-
compounds octanone. Bacteria and actinomycetes, too, produce MVOC, especially dimethyldisulfid
(MVOC) and isoprene.

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4.2.2 Health effects
Biological agents can cause different harmful effects on human health, especially infections. Other effects are
toxic reactions, allergy and sensitization. Details are given in Annex A.
Depending on the level of risk of infection, biological agents are classified in four risk groups (Directive
2000/54/EC), see Table 3. Immunologic deficiencies, pregnancy or lactation are not considered.
NOTE SRF are produced from non-hazardous waste, which normally do not contain micro-organisms of risk group 3
or 4
Table 3 — Classification of biological agents to risk groups (RG) and examples
RG infection/ human exposure availability of examples
disease risk effective
prophylaxis
(B = bacteria, F = fungi, V = virus)
or treatment
1 unlikely insignificant not necessary F: Penicillium-species, Aspergillus-
species except A. fumigatus (see
RG2);
(though sensitizing!)
2 can cause human unlikely usually B: Staphylococcus aureus
disease and available (infection of wounds etc.),
presents a hazard to Clostridium tetani (tetanus)
employees
F: Aspergillus fumigatus (pulmonal
aspergillosis)
V: Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) (acute
hepatitis)
3/ can cause severe may present usually V: HIV (AIDS), HBV (hepatitis B.,
a
3** human disease and a risk available chronic liver disease)
presents a serious
hazard to workers
3**  Certain biological agents classified in group 3 which are indicated in the appended list to Directive
2000/54/EC by two asterisks (**), may present a limited risk of infection for workers because they are not
normally infectious by the airborne route.
a
  E.g. used syringes containing residues of infected persons' blood.

Gram-negative bacteria like Enterobacter, Salmonella or Klebsiella species can cause different kinds of
infections. Enterobacter aerogenes and Enterobacter cloacae sometimes cause meningitis, inflammation of
the urinary passage or the airways. Salmonella typhi (Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica Serovar typhi) can
cause typhus, Salmonella enteritidis (Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica Serovar enteritidis) can cause
salmonellosis of the intestinal tract (enteritis). Only one of the four Klebsiella-species, Klebsiella pneumoniae,
is of hygienic relevance. K. pneumoniae belongs to man's regular intestine flora and is usually innocuous, but
can harm persons with immunologic deficiencies by inflammation of the urinary passage or the airways
(Friedlaender’s pneumonia).
Infections caused by molds – soonest by inhalation – are very rare and mainly affect people with local or
systemic immunologic deficiencies (e.g. HIV-positive tested persons, persons after transplantation, people
affected by mucoviscidosis or diabetes mellitus). The infection – so called mycosis – depends in addition on
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the pathogenic potential and virulence of the mold. Therefore, some molds are classified in Risk Group 2
(opportunistic pathogens), others in Risk Group 3 (endemic pathogens). Table 4 shows infection diseases
caused by Aspergillus fumigatus – which is most common in waste management plants – and the referring
risk person groups. Further molds causing infections and the referring risk groups are reported in some
reports given in the bibliography.
Table 4 — Infection diseases caused by Aspergillus fumigatus and referring risk groups
Infection disease Risk person groups
Mucor infection in lung, paranasal sinus, central nervous people with immunologic deficiencies
system, eye, skin
Invasive pulmonal aspergillosis people with immunologic deficiencies
Invasive aspergillosis of paranasal sinus people with immunologic deficiencies
Invasive aspergillosis (infection of vessels, liver, heart, people with immunologic deficiencies
eye, nervus opticus, central nervous system, medulla,
skin)
Aspergillom (lung and paranasal sinus) patients with bronchial enlargement,
caverns, cysts following a precedent lung
disease
Sinusitis (paranasal sinus inflammation) -
Allergic bronchopulmonal aspergillosis atopics (= people with predisposition for
type I-allergies)
Otitis externa (inflammation of the external ear) -


4.2.3 Sources of biological agents
Waste, especially household waste, is contaminated with different kind of micro-organisms and other
biological agents. Except viruses, micro-organisms can proliferate during holding time in the waste collection
bin (or bag), and especially molds and actinomycetes multiply rapidly while degrading fairly biodegradable
organic residues. In addition, large amounts of odour substances are produced and emitted. The degradation
processes continue during transport and storage of the untreated waste.
Biological agents are not only a problem of mixed household waste, even separately collected glass waste
and paper waste (an important SRF input waste stream) contain high amounts of micro-organisms. Another
input waste stream for SRF-production is separately collected package waste. This material is often – even
visibly – contaminated with molds and bacteria, but with mycotoxins like aflatoxin B1 (carcinogen) or
ochratoxin A (suspected carcinogen), too. These mycotoxins are heat-resistant, and bacterial (and fungal?)
spores can even survive thermal treatment of polymers.
4.3 Chemical substances
4.3.1 general
Chemical substances that can pose a risk to employees in the SRF life-cycle are:
 dust;
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 allergic chemicals;
 MVOC/VOC.
4.3.2 Dust / fine dust
Dust, especially fine dust, is u.a. other generated during mechanical handling of waste and during shredding
of materials, but is an abrasion product of all working aggregates. Dust serves as adsorbing matter for
chemicals like heavy metals, organic compounds and for micro-organisms. Fine dust (PM , PM ) can be
10 2.5
inhaled, as the filtering effects of nose and pharynx is not sufficient for particles smaller than 10 µm. The
smaller the size of particles, the deeper they can invade into the lungs. Inspirable dust (particle size:
7 µm to 20 µm) can penetrate to the bronchioles, respirable dust (particle size: 0,5 µm to 1 µm, 50 %
cut-point of 4 µm) can reach the pulmonary alveoli, where the particles stay for a long time, because they can
hardly be removed. Particles remaining in the alveoli can increase the liability for infections and promote
inflammations of the airways. Chronic diseases like airways and cardiovascular diseases are closely related to
exposure to fine dust.
4.3.3 Allergenic chemicals
Allergenic chemicals and chemical mixtures pose the risk of allergies and sensitization to exposed employees.
In German TRGS 907, mold-containing dust is classified as allergenic chemical. In addition, in German
TRBA 460 Penicillium marneffei and Aspergillus fumigatus are classified as especially allergenic biological
agents. In general, all spore forming fungi can be regarded as potent allergens.
4.3.4 MVOC/VOC
MVOC and other volatile organic compounds (VOC) like D-limonen, α- and β-pinene, are toxic by inhalation
(depending on concentration) or can in addition cause skin irritation and allergies after prolonged exposure.
Terpenes and other volatile organic compounds are naturally occurring degradation products of organic
substance, which can be found in the raw gas of biologically working waste treatment plants.
4.4 Physical factors
4.4.1 General
Physical factors affecting employees’ safety and health in the SRF life-cycle are fires, explosions and injuries
due to sharp-edged or peaked materials.
4.4.2 Fire and explosion
Self heating occurs when a solid organic material (baled or dispersed) reacts with atmospheric oxygen (e.g.
by microbial, chemical or enzymatic degradation processes), and the generated heat energy cannot be
released to the environment. Depending on the storage conditions, SRF – especially those with a high content
of (easily degradable) non-fossil carbon – can be biologically degraded further on, leading to gas production,
self heating and possibly self ignition.
4.4.3 Sharp-edged or peaked materials
Though SRF are solely produced from non-hazardous wastes, the input marterial can contain sharp-edged or
peaked materials. E.g. non-infectious hospital wastes (EWC 18 01 04) or municipal wastes containing wastes
from medical practices may contain syringes. Municipal waste contains waste glass, which can be broken into
sharp-edged pieces.
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5 Workplace related health risks in the life-cycle of solid recovered fuels
5.1 Biological agents
Hitherto, measurements about the exposure on SRF workers to biological agents have not been published.
Experiences from comparable work places and plants in waste treatment show, that wherever waste or
organic matrix containing secondary materials (package waste, waste paper) is moved or treated, especially
chopping, classification, sieving, conditioning, dust and bioaerosols are released. These treatment steps occur
during:
 production;
 storage;
 handling;
 trade;
 sampling;
 analysis.
Further potential exposure is given in cleaning of operation buildings or maintenance and repair of technical
devices, e.g. sieves in SRF production. These treatment procedures may lead to a mixed exposure of the
employees to hazardous chemicals (fine dust, mold-containing dust, MVOC) and bioaerosols (bacteria, mold,
endotoxins, mycotoxins, proteases) in differing concentration, extension and frequency.
A frequent exposure to bioaerosols and hazardous chemicals leads to an increase in health risks for the
employees, especially by infections, toxic effects, allergies and sensitization for other agents. Several studies
show increased antibody-concentrations in different types of waste management workers. A permanent
overload of the immune response can cause further health problems.
Further health risks due to biological agents occur during SRF controlling systems (sampling, sample
preparation, analysis), especially in cases where sorting analyses are prescribed. Here, the employees can be
affected by smear infections, infection after injury by stings or incisions or bioaerosol exposure.
5.2 Chemical substances
5.2.1 Dust / fine dust
Dust, especially fine dust (PM , PM ), is always generated during chopping, grinding and milling processes,
10 2,5
and is released by all working aggregates due to abrasion. Therefore, an exposure to dust can be expected at
the following working places:
 production;
 storage;
 handling;
 during sampling and analysis.
5.2.2 Allergenic chemicals
As mold-containing dust can be regarded as allergenic chemical and as this dust can be expected generally
where dust is generated (in plants concerning this matter), an exposure can be expected at the following
working places:
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 production;
 storage;
 handling;
 during sampling and analysis.
5.2.3 MVOC/VOC
MVOC are always produced where mold fungi can proliferate. Therefore, any working place with contact to
biological agents poses in addition the risk of MVOC-exposure. Other volatile organic compounds (VOC), like
terpenes and other naturally occurring degradation products of organic substance, like D-limonen, α- and
β-pinene, will occur in the waste air of uncontrolled biological degradation of organic matrices like municipal
waste, as could be shown for several mechanical-biological treatment plants. Therefore, all steps of the SRF
life-cycle until the SRF entering the combustion chamber can be accompanied by VOC-emissions.
5.3 Physical factors
5.3.1 Fire and explosion
Degradation of biodegradable contents of SRF can lead to self heating and self ignition with an explosion-like
reaction, as happened twice in 2003 in the Mie power plant, district of Chikarao in Tado/Japan. Some people
were killed there by the explosions.
5.3.2 Sharp-edged or peaked materials
Some wastes like municipal solid waste or non-infectious hospital wastes (EWC 18 01 04) may contain
syringes, which can block the sieves in mechanical treatment of input material. Cleaning of these blocked
sieves poses a high risk of injury and infection, despite protective measures like special gloves.
Further health risks due to biological agents occur during SRF controlling systems (sampling, sample
preparation, analysis), especially in cases, where sorting analyses are prescribed. Here, the employees can
be affected by injuries by stings or incisions – with the risk of a succeeding infection (e.g. hepatitis).
6 European and national regulations concerning protection of occupational safety
and health related to SRF
6.1 Bioaerosols and allergens
The Directive 2000/54/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 September 2000 on the
protection of workers from risks related to exposure to biological agents at work (seventh individual directive
within the meaning of Article 16(1) of Directive 89/391/EEC), in force sind november 6, 2000, aims at the
protection of workers against risks to their health and safety, including the prevention of such risks, arising or
likely to arise from exposure to biological agents at work. It lays down particular minimum provisions in this
area. (Article 1)
Article 3 demands:
2. In the case of any activity likely to involve a risk of exposure to biological agents, the nature, degree and
duration of workers' exposure must be determined in order to make it possible to assess any risk to the
workers' health or safety and to lay down the measures to be taken.
In the case of activities involving exposure to several groups of biological agents, the risk shall be assessed
on the basis of the danger presented by all hazardous biological agents present.
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The assessment must be renewed regularly and in any event when any change occurs in the conditions which
may affect workers' exposure to biological agents.
Article 6 says:
Reduction of risks
1. Where the results of the assessment referred to in Article 3 reveal a risk to workers' health or safety,
workers' exposure must be prevented.
2. Where this is not technically practicable, having regard to the activity and the risk assessment referred to in
Article 3, the risk of exposure must be reduced to as low a level as necessary in order to protect adequately
the health and safety of the workers concerned, in particular by the following measures which are to be
applied in the light of the results of the assessment referred to in Article 3:
(a) keeping as low as possible the number of workers exposed or likely to be exposed;
(b) design of work processes and engineering control measures so as to avoid or minimise the release of
biological agents into the place of work;
(c) collective protection measures and/or, where exposure cannot be avoided by other means, individual
protection measures;
(d) hygiene measures compatible with the aim of the prevention or reduction of the accidental transfer or
release of a biological agent from the workplace;
(e) use of the biohazard sign depicted in Annex II and other relevant warning signs;
(f) drawing up plans to deal with accidents involving biological agents;
(g) testing, where it is necessary and technically possible, for the presence, outside the prima
...