ISO 704:2009
(Main)Terminology work - Principles and methods
Terminology work - Principles and methods
ISO 704:2009 establishes the basic principles and methods for preparing and compiling terminologies both inside and outside the framework of standardization, and describes the links between objects, concepts, and their terminological representations. It also establishes general principles governing the formation of designations and the formulation of definitions. Full and complete understanding of these principles requires some background knowledge of terminology work. The principles are general in nature and this document is applicable to terminology work in scientific, technological, industrial, administrative and other fields of knowledge. ISO 704:2009 does not stipulate procedures for the layout of international terminology standards, which are treated in ISO 10241.
Travail terminologique — Principes et méthodes
L'ISO 704:2009 établit et harmonise les principes fondamentaux et les méthodes permettant d'élaborer et de compiler des terminologies, qu'il s'agisse d'activités menées dans le cadre de la normalisation ou non, et décrit les liens établis entre les objets, les concepts et leur représentation par des terminologies. Elle fixe également des principes généraux qui régissent la formation des désignations et la formulation des définitions. Pour une compréhension complète et approfondie de ces principes, des connaissances de fond du travail terminologique sont nécessaires. Il s'agit de principes de nature générale, et le présent document s'applique aux travaux terminologiques effectués dans les domaines scientifiques, technologiques, industriels, administratifs, ainsi que dans les autres domaines de la connaissance. L'ISO 704:2009 ne décrit pas les méthodes de présentation des Normes internationales de terminologie; celles-ci sont traitées dans l'ISO 10241.
Terminološko delo - Načela in metode
Ta mednarodni standard vzpostavlja osnovna načela in metode za pripravo in sestavljanje terminologije zunaj in znotraj okvira standardizacije ter opisuje povezave med predmeti, koncepti in njihovimi terminološkimi prikazi. Vzpostavlja tudi splošna načela za oblikovanje izrazov in označb ter formulacijo definicij. Popolno in celostno razumevanje teh načel zahteva nekaj splošnega znanja o terminološkem delu. Načela iz tega mednarodnega standarda so splošna in se lahko uporabljajo pri terminološkem delu na znanstvenem, tehnološkem, industrijskem in administrativnem področju ter drugih področjih znanja. V tem mednarodnem standardu niso predpisani postopki za oblikovanje mednarodnih terminoloških standardov, ki so opisani v standardu ISO 10241.
General Information
- Status
- Withdrawn
- Publication Date
- 29-Oct-2009
- Technical Committee
- ISO/TC 37/SC 1 - Principles and methods
- Drafting Committee
- ISO/TC 37/SC 1/WG 3 - Principles, methods and vocabulary
- Current Stage
- 9599 - Withdrawal of International Standard
- Start Date
- 05-Jul-2022
- Completion Date
- 13-Dec-2025
Relations
- Effective Date
- 23-Apr-2020
- Effective Date
- 15-Apr-2008
Frequently Asked Questions
ISO 704:2009 is a standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Its full title is "Terminology work - Principles and methods". This standard covers: ISO 704:2009 establishes the basic principles and methods for preparing and compiling terminologies both inside and outside the framework of standardization, and describes the links between objects, concepts, and their terminological representations. It also establishes general principles governing the formation of designations and the formulation of definitions. Full and complete understanding of these principles requires some background knowledge of terminology work. The principles are general in nature and this document is applicable to terminology work in scientific, technological, industrial, administrative and other fields of knowledge. ISO 704:2009 does not stipulate procedures for the layout of international terminology standards, which are treated in ISO 10241.
ISO 704:2009 establishes the basic principles and methods for preparing and compiling terminologies both inside and outside the framework of standardization, and describes the links between objects, concepts, and their terminological representations. It also establishes general principles governing the formation of designations and the formulation of definitions. Full and complete understanding of these principles requires some background knowledge of terminology work. The principles are general in nature and this document is applicable to terminology work in scientific, technological, industrial, administrative and other fields of knowledge. ISO 704:2009 does not stipulate procedures for the layout of international terminology standards, which are treated in ISO 10241.
ISO 704:2009 is classified under the following ICS (International Classification for Standards) categories: 01.020 - Terminology (principles and coordination). The ICS classification helps identify the subject area and facilitates finding related standards.
ISO 704:2009 has the following relationships with other standards: It is inter standard links to ISO 704:2022, ISO 704:2000. Understanding these relationships helps ensure you are using the most current and applicable version of the standard.
ISO 704:2009 is available in PDF format for immediate download after purchase. The document can be added to your cart and obtained through the secure checkout process. Digital delivery ensures instant access to the complete standard document.
Standards Content (Sample)
SLOVENSKI STANDARD
01-julij-2013
1DGRPHãþD
SIST ISO 704:2003
7HUPLQRORãNRGHOR1DþHODLQPHWRGH
Terminology work -- Principles and methods
Travail terminologique -- Principes et méthodes
Ta slovenski standard je istoveten z: ISO 704:2009
ICS:
01.020 7HUPLQRORJLMDQDþHODLQ Terminology (principles and
NRRUGLQDFLMD coordination)
2003-01.Slovenski inštitut za standardizacijo. Razmnoževanje celote ali delov tega standarda ni dovoljeno.
INTERNATIONAL ISO
STANDARD 704
Third edition
2009-11-01
Terminology work — Principles and
methods
Travail terminologique — Principes et méthodes
Reference number
©
ISO 2009
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ii © ISO 2009 – All rights reserved
Contents Page
Foreword .iv
0 Introduction.v
1 Scope.1
2 Normative references.1
3 Terms and definitions .1
4 Objects.2
5 Concepts .2
5.1 Nature of concepts for terminology work.2
5.2 General concepts .3
5.3 Individual concepts .3
5.4 Characteristics.4
5.5 Concept relations .8
5.6 Concept systems.18
6 Definitions .22
6.1 Nature of definitions.22
6.2 Intensional definitions .22
6.3 Definition writing .23
6.4 Supplementary information to the definition.28
6.5 Deficient definitions .30
7 Designations .34
7.1 Types of designations.34
7.2 Terms.34
7.3 Appellations .36
7.4 Formation of terms and appellations .38
7.5 Symbols.41
Annex A (informative) Other types of definitions .44
Annex B (informative) Examples of term-formation methods.51
Annex C (informative) Categories of appellations.56
Index .60
Bibliography.64
Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies
(ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out through ISO
technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical committee has been
established has the right to be represented on that committee. International organizations, governmental and
non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work. ISO collaborates closely with the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of electrotechnical standardization.
International Standards are drafted in accordance with the rules given in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2.
The main task of technical committees is to prepare International Standards. Draft International Standards
adopted by the technical committees are circulated to the member bodies for voting. Publication as an
International Standard requires approval by at least 75 % of the member bodies casting a vote.
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of patent
rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
ISO 704 was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 37, Terminology and other language and content
resources, Subcommittee SC 1, Principles and methods.
This third edition cancels and replaces the second edition (ISO 704:2000), which has been technically revised.
iv © ISO 2009 – All rights reserved
0 Introduction
0.1 Overview
The terminological principles and methods provided in this International Standard are based on current
thinking and practices in terminology work.
Terminology work is multidisciplinary and draws support from a number of disciplines (e.g. logic, epistemology,
philosophy of science, linguistics, translation studies, information science and cognitive sciences) in its study
of concepts and their representations in special language and general language. It combines elements from
many theoretical approaches that deal with the description, ordering and transfer of knowledge.
The terminology work dealt with in this International Standard is concerned with terminology used for
unambiguous communication in natural, human language. The goal of terminology work as described in this
International Standard is, thus, a clarification and standardization of concepts and terminology for
communication between humans. Terminology work may be used as input for information modelling and data
modelling, but this International Standard does not cover the relation with these fields.
In line with the current trend in standardization towards providing guiding principles, this International
Standard is intended to standardize the essential elements for terminology work. The general purposes of this
International Standard are to provide a common framework of thinking and to explain how this thinking should
be implemented by an organization or group.
It is further intended to provide assistance to those involved in terminology management. The principles and
methods should be observed not only for the manipulation of terminological information but also in the
planning and decision-making involved in managing a stock of terminology. The main activities include, but
are not limited to, the following:
— identifying concepts and concept relations;
— analysing and modelling concept systems on the basis of identified concepts and concept
relations;
— establishing representations of concept systems through concept diagrams;
— defining concepts;
— attributing designations (predominantly terms) to each concept in one or more languages;
— recording and presenting terminological data, principally in print and electronic media
(terminography).
Objects, concepts, designations and definitions are fundamental to terminology work and therefore form the
basis of this International Standard. Objects are perceived or conceived and abstracted into concepts which,
in special languages, are represented by designations and/or definitions. The set of designations belonging to
one special language constitutes the terminology of a specific subject field.
0.2 Conventions and notation
In this International Standard and for the English language, ‘terminology work’ designates the discipline;
‘terminology’ used in the plural or preceded by an article refers to the set of designations of a particular
subject field, such as legal terminology.
For the sake of consistency in reference to objects, concepts, definitions, and designations, the following
wording conventions are used in this International Standard:
— objects
are perceived or conceived;
are abstracted or conceptualized into concepts;
— concepts
depict or correspond to objects or sets of objects;
are represented or expressed in language by designations or by definitions;
are organized into concept systems;
— designations (terms, appellations or symbols)
designate or represent a concept;
are attributed to a concept;
⎯ definitions
define, represent or describe the concept.
The more complex a concept system is, the more useful it is to clarify relations among concepts by
representing them formally or graphically. Concept relations can be represented formally in a list. The formal
representations used in this International Standard are indented and numbered with a full stop (period) (.) for
generic relations and numbered with a dash (–) for partitive relations, as in the following models:
For generic relations: For partitive relations:
vi © ISO 2009 – All rights reserved
The graphic representations used in this International Standard are the most typical ones. The use of
UML (Unified Modeling Language) notation for terminology work is described in ISO/TR 24156.
tree diagram to represent generic concept relations
rake diagram to represent partitive concept relations
line with arrowheads at each end to represent associative
concept relations
The notation used throughout this International Standard is as follows:
⎯ terms designating concepts defined in ISO 1087-1:2000 are in italics;
⎯ concepts are indicated by single quotes;
⎯ designations (terms, appellations or symbols) are in boldface;
⎯ characteristics are underlined;
⎯ examples are boxed.
This International Standard follows the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2, 2004 with regard to the use of “shall”, which
indicates a requirement and the use of “should”, which indicates a recommendation.
It should be noted that the examples in this International Standard have been chosen and simplified for
illustrative purposes. Translation into other languages may necessitate the selection of other examples to
illustrate the points.
It should also be noted that the examples of term-formation methods, in Annex B, are specific to the English
language in the English version and to the French language in the French version. Annex B should not be
translated, but should be adapted to the needs of each language.
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO 704:2009(E)
Terminology work — Principles and methods
1 Scope
This International Standard establishes the basic principles and methods for preparing and compiling
terminologies both inside and outside the framework of standardization, and describes the links between
objects, concepts, and their terminological representations. It also establishes general principles governing the
formation of terms and appellations and the formulation of definitions. Full and complete understanding of
these principles requires some background knowledge of terminology work. The principles are general in
nature and this International Standard is applicable to terminology work in scientific, technological, industrial,
administrative and other fields of knowledge.
This International Standard does not stipulate procedures for the layout of international terminology standards,
which are treated in ISO 10241.
2 Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document. For dated
references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced
document (including any amendments) applies.
ISO 1087-1, Terminology work — Vocabulary — Part 1: Theory and application
3 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, the terms and definitions given in ISO 1087-1 and the following apply.
3.1
stipulative definition
definition which results from adapting a lexical definition to a unique situation for a given purpose and which is
not standard usage
3.2
ostensive definition
demonstrative definition
definition which exhibits one or more representative object(s) in the extension of the concept
3.3
specialized concept
concept which reflects specific or technical knowledge within a given subject field
3.4
terminological resource
terminological data collection
TDC
text or data resource consisting of terminological entries
1)
NOTE Adapted form ISO 26162:— .
3.5
terminology product
product that supports special language use or the field of terminology
NOTE Products that support special language use refer to dictionaries, databases, and other products for the
dissemination of specialized terminology while products that support the field of terminology refer to journals, training
manuals, tools, etc.
[ISO 22128:2008, definition 3.13]
3.6
terminographical product
terminology product consisting of a set of designations and terminological and/or linguistic information to
support special language use
[ISO 22128:2008, definition 3.9]
4 Objects
In terminology work, an object is defined as anything perceived or conceived. Some objects, such as a
machine, a diamond, or a river, should be considered concrete or material; others, such as each manifestation
of financial planning, gravity, fluidity, or a conversion ratio, should be considered immaterial or abstract; still
others, for example, a unicorn, a philosopher's stone or a literary character should be considered purely
imaginary. In the course of producing a terminology, philosophical discussions on whether an object actually
exists in reality are unproductive and should be avoided. Attention should be focused on how one deals with
objects for the purposes of communication.
Objects are described and identified by their properties (see example in 5.4.1), but neither properties of
specific objects nor the objects themselves are recorded in the terminological resource.
5 Concepts
5.1 Nature of concepts for terminology work
In communication, not every individual object in the world is differentiated and named. Instead, through
observation and a process of abstraction called conceptualization, objects are categorized into classes, which
correspond to units of knowledge called concepts, which are represented in various forms of communication
(object → concept → communication). This International Standard does not deal with all concepts represented
in language but only with those represented by the terminology of specialized fields. For terminology work,
concepts shall be considered mental representations of objects within a specialized context or field.
Concepts are not to be confused with abstract or imagined objects (i.e. concrete, abstract or imagined objects
in a given context are observed and conceptualized mentally and then a designation is attributed to the
concept rather than to the objects themselves). The link between an object and its corresponding designation
or definition is made through the concept, a higher level of abstraction.
1) To be published.
2 © ISO 2009 – All rights reserved
Producing a terminology requires an understanding of the conceptualization that underpins human knowledge
in a subject area. Because terminology work always deals with specialized language in a particular field of
knowledge (i.e. a subject field), the concept should be viewed not only as a unit of thought but also as a unit of
knowledge.
The concepts contextualized in the special language of the subject field can be represented in the various
forms of human communication according to the system used. In natural language, concepts can be
represented by terms, appellations, definitions or other linguistic forms; they may also be represented by
symbols; in artificial language, they can be represented by codes or formulae, while in multimedia they can be
represented by icons, pictures, diagrams, graphics, sound clips, video or other multimedia representations.
Concepts may also be represented with the human body as they are in sign language, facial expressions or
body movements. This International Standard does not deal with the representation of concepts by sign or
body language.
Concepts are described and identified by their characteristics (see 5.4.2, Example 2).
5.2 General concepts
When a concept depicts or corresponds to a set of two or more objects which form a group by reason of
common properties, it is called a general concept and, in special languages, the designation takes the form of
a term (e.g. floppy disk, liquidity, money market fund, etc.) or a symbol (e.g. ©, W, $).
5.3 Individual concepts
When the concept depicts or corresponds to a single object or when an object comprising a
unique composition of entities is considered a single entity, it is called an individual concept and is
represented in special language as an appellation (e.g. United Nations, Internet, World Wide Web) or a
symbol (e.g. Africa; Statue of Liberty). Appellations refer to individual concepts and comprise
names, titles and other similar forms and shall be distinguished from terms that refer to general concepts.
It follows that any unique object shall be considered an individual concept. When an individual concept is
designated by an appellation constructed by conjoined entities, it is still considered an individual concept even
though conjoined words or terms usually signal more than one concept.
EXAMPLE
A conjoined multi-name appellation in which there is elision of the headword can be viewed as a single individual
concept. For example, a whole with X parts, as in the case of North, Central, and South America (a single region made
up of the three parts) as opposed to the three appellations ‘North America’, ‘Central America’, and ‘South America’,
which are viewed as three separate individual concepts.
A multi-word appellation with conjoined modifiers is to be interpreted as a single entity and it designates an individual
concept, for example: The Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission is to be interpreted as
one entity, not two, i.e. not as the ‘Canadian Radio-television Commission’ and the ‘Canadian Telecommunications
Commission’. Similarly, Sunnybrook and Women's Colleges Health Sciences Centre is one entity.
An individual concept in a generic concept system cannot be subdivided further, while an individual concept in
a partitive concept system can be subdivided into its parts (see 5.5.2.2.2 and 5.5.2.3.2).
5.4 Characteristics
5.4.1 Nature of characteristics
Concept formation plays a pivotal role in organizing human knowledge because it provides the means for
recognizing objects and for grouping them into meaningful units in a particular field. In order to categorize an
object for the purposes of concept formation, it is necessary to identify its properties (see the example below).
Objects perceived as sharing the same properties are grouped into units. Once similar objects, or occasionally
a single object, are viewed as a meaningful unit of knowledge within a branch of human knowledge, the
properties of an object, or those common to a set of objects, are abstracted as characteristics that are
combined as a set in the formation of a concept.
Thus, objects in the real world are identified by their properties. The objects are then abstracted as concepts
and the properties are abstracted as characteristics making up the concepts. Abstraction is the process of
recognizing some set of common features in an individual set of objects and, on that basis, forming a concept
of that set of objects. Characteristics are qualifiers and narrow the meaning of a superordinate concept (see
5.5.2.1). It should be noted that ‘characteristic’ is a linguistic concept which should not be confused with the
information technology (IT) concept ‘property’.
EXAMPLE
Real World Abstraction
is abstracted into
object concep t
has constitutes
property characteristic
is abstracted by
The relations between these four concepts might be further elucidated by the following statements.
⎯ Each object has one or multiple properties.
⎯ Each property of a similar kind is abstracted into one characteristic.
⎯ Each characteristic is part of one or multiple concepts.
⎯ Each concept is constituted by one or multiple characteristics.
⎯ Each object is abstracted into one or multiple concepts.
5.4.2 Terminological analysis
The coming together of a unique set of characteristics to make a concept is an everyday occurrence. The
concept made up of this set of characteristics is represented by a designation (i.e. a term, appellation or
symbol). Since a designation is not attributed to an object but to a concept, the latter depicting one or more
objects, terminological analysis is based upon a representation of the concept in the form of a designation or a
definition. Therefore, the methodology used in the analysis of terminologies requires:
⎯ identifying the context or subject field;
⎯ identifying the properties attributed to objects in the subject field;
4 © ISO 2009 – All rights reserved
⎯ determining those properties which are abstracted into characteristics;
⎯ combining the characteristics to form a concept;
⎯ attributing a designation.
It should also be noted that the properties used to state properties that describe an object and the
characteristics that make up a concept designate in themselves concepts, sometimes within the same
specialized field, sometimes not. It may be useful to begin an analysis with those concepts corresponding to
concrete objects, since the characteristics are more easily abstracted given that the properties of the objects
can be physically observed or examined.
In an abstract way, terminological analysis should begin with the objects in question and the subject field
contextualizing those objects. Properties shall be ascribed only to objects. A terminologist begins by analysing
discourse texts which refer to objects to see how they are designated in language. By analysing a certain
number of discourse texts, the terminologist can get an understanding of the properties of the various
referents in the different discourse texts, so as to determine those properties that can be abstracted as
characteristics, as opposed to those properties that are unique to an individual object and, therefore, cannot
be seen as characteristics.
EXAMPLE 1
The specific objects designated by the visual representations below have the following specific properties:
⎯ a device; ⎯ a device; ⎯ a device;
⎯ ivory-coloured; ⎯ blue and grey; ⎯ black-grey;
⎯ hand-manoeuvred along a ⎯ hand-manoeuvred along a ⎯ hand-manoeuvred along a
firm, flat surface; firm, flat surface; firm, flat surface;
⎯ has a ball on its underside; ⎯ has a ball on its underside; ⎯ has a ball on its underside;
⎯ has three buttons; ⎯ has two buttons; ⎯ has two buttons;
⎯ has a wire for connecting to a ⎯ has a wire for connecting to ⎯ has a wire for connecting to
computer; a computer; a computer;
⎯ rollers detect the movement ⎯ rollers detect the movement ⎯ rollers detect the movement
of the ball; of the ball; of the ball;
⎯ the ball controls the ⎯ the ball controls the ⎯ the ball controls the
movement of a cursor on a movement of a cursor on a movement of a cursor on a
computer display screen. computer display screen. computer display screen.
If the objects in Example 1 are contextualized in the field of computer hardware, these particular objects are
recognized as belonging to the set of objects that has been conceptualized as ‘mechanical mouse’. In the
process of conceptualization, the properties of all the objects in the category are abstracted into
characteristics, that is, the properties of the objects are converted into generalizations applied to the entire set
as opposed to the individual objects, as illustrated in Example 2.
To facilitate this analysis, the properties of objects may be grouped into categories such as part, function,
composition, colour, shape, operation, location. Categories appropriate to the subject field can be found from
reference works and encyclopedias, but any list has to be used flexibly, and it should be assumed that
additional categories are likely to be needed to adequately represent all the properties. For practical purposes,
beginning with one of the more typical objects is recommended. The identification of characteristics shall be
based on specialized knowledge in the field and this often requires research. Experienced terminologists for
whom the concept in question is clear and straightforward may move directly to identifying the characteristics.
The following example is a preliminary analysis of the concept ‘mechanical mouse’. Concepts denoting
non-physical objects, e.g. ‘bankruptcy’, shall be analysed along the same lines.
EXAMPLE 2
Concept: abstraction based on the set of all mechanical mice
Designation (term): mechanical mouse
Properties of Object 1 Properties of Object 2 Properties of Object 3 Characteristics
hand-manoeuvred along a hand-manoeuvred along a hand-manoeuvred along a being hand-manoeuvred
firm, flat surface firm, flat surface firm, flat surface along a firm, flat surface
has a ball on its underside has a ball on its underside has a ball on its underside having a ball on its underside
has three buttons has two buttons has three buttons having at least one button
has a wire for connecting to has a wire for connecting to has a wire for connecting to a having a wire for connecting
a computer a computer computer to a computer
having rollers (mechanical
rollers detect the movement rollers detect the movement rollers detect the movement
sensors) for detecting ball-
of the ball of the ball; of the ball
movement
ivory-coloured blue black having colour
NOTE This characteristic
is inherited from a
superordinate concept at a
very high level, e.g. ‘physical
object’.
Characteristics shall be used in the analysis of concepts, the modelling of concept systems, and in the
formulation of definitions and, where appropriate, should have a bearing on the selection and formation of
designations.
Note that in selecting properties and characteristics, these purposes need to be borne in mind, since the
number of properties that distinguish one object from another is effectively infinite. So, for example, in the
case of computer mice, one might observe that place of manufacture is a characteristic which need not be
considered. Again, the experienced terminologist will be well-placed to anticipate what is likely to be required.
5.4.3 Intension and extension
The set of characteristics that come together to form the concept is called the intension of the concept. The
set of objects conceptualized as a concept is known as the extension of the concept. The two, the intension
and the extension, are interdependent. For example, the characteristics making up the intension of
‘mechanical mouse’ determine the extension or the objects that qualify as mechanical mice.
5.4.4 Shared vs. delimiting characteristics
After identifying the characteristics that make up the intension of a concept, the terminological analysis shall
be taken a step further. Each characteristic of the concept under study shall be analysed in relation to the
related concepts in the concept system. Similarities between concepts are indicated by shared characteristics;
differences that set a concept apart are signalled by delimiting characteristics (see 5.5.2.2.1, Example 4).
A characteristic is delimiting with respect to two concepts if it distinguishes these concepts from each other.
The same characteristic of a concept may be delimiting in relation to one related concept but shared with
another related concept. Analysing the similarities and differences between concepts will result in identifying
6 © ISO 2009 – All rights reserved
the unique set of characteristics that typify a given concept. Specification of this unique combination of
characteristics will situate the concept within a network of related concepts with similar or different
characteristics. The relations between the concepts shall be used to determine the basic structure of a
concept system (see 5.6). The task of defining a concept requires knowledge of the characteristics used to
develop the concept system.
5.4.5 Necessary, sufficient, and essential characteristics
In some fields, e.g. IT and logic, a distinction is made between necessary, sufficient, and essential
characteristics and, while they are not relevant to terminology work, they are described here for informative
purposes.
Necessary characteristics hold for all objects in the extension of a concept, i.e. they correspond to properties
that all objects in the extension must have.
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the concept of ‘right-angled triangle with sides 3, 4 and 5 cm’. For all objects in the extension of this concept, all
the characteristics below necessarily hold, i.e. all objects have the corresponding properties. These are necessary
characteristics of the concept.
Characteristics Properties of any object in the extension
Length of one side of the right angle: 3 cm Length of one side of the right angle: 3 cm
Length of the other side of the right angle: 4 cm Length of the other side of the right angle: 4 cm
Length of hypotenuse: 5 cm Length of hypotenuse: 5 cm
NOTE For all right-angled triangles, it holds that
2 2 2
a + b = c
where a, b and c are the lengths of three sides in the triangle. Therefore, the length of one side can always be calculated
from the length of the other two, and hence any two of the characteristics will be enough to uniquely define the concept.
Note that even though three different definitions can be given, the concept remains the unique combination of
characteristics listed above.
A sufficient characteristic is one of a set of characteristics that determines whether a specific object belongs in
the extension of a given concept. A sufficient characteristic is not necessarily true of all objects in the
extension of the concept, but any object having the properties corresponding to the characteristics in this set
belong to the extension of the concept.
EXAMPLE 2
Any object that has the properties corresponding to the characteristics having given birth and being human belongs in
the extension of the concept ‘woman’, but not all women have given birth.
NOTE Since sufficient characteristics do not necessarily hold of all objects in the extension of a concept, they cannot
be used to define that concept.
An essential characteristic is one of a set of characteristics that is both necessary and sufficient to determine
the extension of a concept.
EXAMPLE 3
At present, the property of being the “fourth day of the month of July” is both necessary and sufficient for an object
belonging to the extension of the concept ‘Independence Day in the United States of America’.
The distinction between necessary, sufficient, and essential characteristics has to do with the identification of
the extension of concepts. Terminology work is concerned with the intension and designation of concepts, and
in this context necessary, sufficient, and essential characteristics are not used.
5.5 Concept relations
5.5.1 Types of concept relations
Concepts do not exist as isolated units of knowledge but always in relation to each other. Our thought
processes constantly create and refine the relations between concepts, whether these relations are formally
acknowledged or not. A set of concepts structured according to the relations among them is said to form a
concept system.
In organizing concepts into a concept system, it is necessary to bear in mind the subject field that gave rise to
the concept and to consider the expectations and objectives of the target users. The subject field shall act as
the framework within which the concept field, the set of thematically related but unstructured concepts, is
established.
EXAMPLE
If our task were to list and compile the terminology of pointing devices for computer hardware, our example of
‘mechanical mouse’ would form part of the concept field dealing with mice as conceptualized by those in the subject field
of computer hardware.
NOTE Mice outside the subject field of computer hardware, such as field mice or laboratory mice, would be
excluded.
To model a concept system, the concepts of the concept field have to be examined and compared. In
terminology work, at least the following relations shall be used to model a concept system:
⎯ hierarchical relations:
⎯ generic relations;
⎯ partitive relations;
⎯ associative relations.
Concept systems are represented graphically by concept diagrams.
5.5.2 Hierarchical relations
5.5.2.1 Types of hierarchical relations
In a hierarchical relation, concepts are organized into levels of superordinate and subordinate concepts. For
there to be a hierarchy, there must be at least one subordinate concept below a superordinate concept.
Superordinate concepts can be subdivided according to more than one criterion of subdivision (i.e. they can
be viewed from more than one dimension), in which case the resulting concept system is said to be
multidimensional. Subordinate concepts at the same level and resulting from the application of the same
criterion of subdivision are called coordinate concepts. Concepts are superordinate, subordinate or coordinate,
not on their own, but always in relation to each other in a hierarchy.
In this International Standard, two types of hierarchical relations are recognized:
⎯ generic relations;
⎯ partitive relations.
8 © ISO 2009 – All rights reserved
5.5.2.2 Generic relations
5.5.2.2.1 Generic relations and general concepts
As mentioned in 5.4.2, the characteristics associated with a concept constitute its intension, and all the objects
included in the set of objects associated with the concept constitute its extension. A generic relation exists
between two concepts when the intension of the subordinate concept includes the intension of the
superordinate concept plus at least one additional delimiting characteristic. For example, the intension of
‘mechanical mouse’ comprises that of ‘computer mouse’ plus the delimiting characteristic having rollers
(mechanical sensors) for detecting ball-movement (see Example 2).
In a generic relation, the inclusion relationship between the extensions of the two concepts is the inverse, i.e.
the extension of the superordinate concept includes that of the subordinate concept. For example, the
extension of ‘computer mouse’ includes that of ‘mechanical mouse’ since some of the objects categorized as
computer mice can also be categorized as mechanical mice.
The superordinate concept in a generic relation is called the generic concept and the subordinate concept is
called the specific concept.
An important feature of the generic relation is that it assumes inheritance, i.e. if concept B (e.g. ‘mechanical
mouse’) is a specific concept of the generic concept A (e.g. ‘computer mouse’), then concept B inherits all the
characteristics of concept A. The inheritance principle is a way of testing and validating the generic
relationship (see Example 3). In keeping with the metaphor implied by the concept of inheritance, a generic
concept is often called a parent, a specific concept is a child, and coordinate concepts are siblings.
When documenting characteristics associated with concepts, instead of listing inherited characteristics
redundantly for subordinate concepts, they shall be listed only with the generic concept. Under the specific
concept, it is possible simply to list only the additional characteristic(s) that delimits the specific concept from
its generic concept and/or from its fellow coordinate concepts. Inherited characteristics can be obtained at the
level above in the concept system.
EXAMPLE 1
In the concept diagram below, ‘computer mouse’ is a specific concept in relation to the generic concept, ‘pointing device’.
Similarly, the concepts ‘mechanical mouse’, ‘optomechanical mouse’, and ‘optical mouse’ are each a specific concept in
relation to the generic concept ‘computer mouse’. Each of the coordinate concepts ‘mechanical mouse’, ‘optomechanical
mouse’ and ‘optical mouse’ has a generic relation with the generic concept ‘computer mouse’.
pointing
device
...
touch pad
computer
...
light pen
mouse
mechanical optomechanical optical
mouse mouse mouse
Comparing the characteristics of a concept and its related concepts (i.e. generic, coordinate and specific) may
require an adjustment and refinement of the intension.
EXAMPLE 2
Comparison of the characteristics of ‘mechanical mouse’ with related concepts in Example 3
Usage
hand-manoeuvred along a firm, flat DELIMITING in relation to the generic ‘pointing device’ but
surface INHERITED from the generic ‘computer mouse’, and SHARED
with the coordinates ‘optomechanical mouse’ and ‘optical
mouse’
Composition has a ball on its underside SHARED with the coordinate ‘optomechanical mouse’ but
DELIMITING in relation to all other concepts in question
Composition
has at least one button DELIMITING in relation to the generic ‘pointing device’ but
INHERITED from the generic ‘computer mouse’, and SHARED
with the coordinates ‘optomechanical mouse’ and ‘optical
mouse’
Function having rollers (mechanical sensors) DELIMITING in relation to all other concepts in question
for detecting ball-movement
Function ball movement controls the SHARED with the coordinate ‘optomechanical mouse’ but
movement of a pointer on a DELIMITING in relation to all other concepts in question
computer display screen
NOTE The characteristics having colour and having a wire for connecting to a computer have now been dispensed with as they are
considered to have no importance in relation to subsequent analysis.
10 © ISO 2009 – All rights reserved
EXAMPLE 3
pointing device
a
- concreteness : a device
- controls movement of the
cursor or pointer on a display
screen
... computer mouse
touch pad
...
light pen
- type of pointing dev ice
- has at least one but ton
- moves on a firm, flat surfa ce
mechanical mo optomecuse hanical m optical ouse mou se
- type of computer mo use - - type of computer
- type of computer mo use
mou se
- rollers and light sensors
- rollers (mechanical sensors)
detect ball movement - - light (more recently
detect ball mov ement
light emitting diodes)
- ball movement moves
- ball movement moves pointer
used to detect
pointer on the display scr een
on the display scr een
mouse move ment
a
Concreteness is listed here as a reminder that pointing devices are concrete objects.
According to the principle of inheritance, a ‘mechanical mouse’ is a type of or kind of ‘computer mouse’, which is in
turn a kind of ‘pointing device’. The set of all mechanical mice is a subset of all computer mice. This means that all
mechanical mice are also computer mice, and that the intension of ‘computer mouse’ has to apply to or is inherited by
the concept of ‘mechanical mouse’. When the subset is defined, however, mechanical mice are distinguish
...
INTERNATIONAL ISO
STANDARD 704
Third edition
2009-11-01
Terminology work — Principles and
methods
Travail terminologique — Principes et méthodes
Reference number
©
ISO 2009
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ii © ISO 2009 – All rights reserved
Contents Page
Foreword .iv
0 Introduction.v
1 Scope.1
2 Normative references.1
3 Terms and definitions .1
4 Objects.2
5 Concepts .2
5.1 Nature of concepts for terminology work.2
5.2 General concepts .3
5.3 Individual concepts .3
5.4 Characteristics.4
5.5 Concept relations .8
5.6 Concept systems.18
6 Definitions .22
6.1 Nature of definitions.22
6.2 Intensional definitions .22
6.3 Definition writing .23
6.4 Supplementary information to the definition.28
6.5 Deficient definitions .30
7 Designations .34
7.1 Types of designations.34
7.2 Terms.34
7.3 Appellations .36
7.4 Formation of terms and appellations .38
7.5 Symbols.41
Annex A (informative) Other types of definitions .44
Annex B (informative) Examples of term-formation methods.51
Annex C (informative) Categories of appellations.56
Index .60
Bibliography.64
Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies
(ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out through ISO
technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical committee has been
established has the right to be represented on that committee. International organizations, governmental and
non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work. ISO collaborates closely with the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of electrotechnical standardization.
International Standards are drafted in accordance with the rules given in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2.
The main task of technical committees is to prepare International Standards. Draft International Standards
adopted by the technical committees are circulated to the member bodies for voting. Publication as an
International Standard requires approval by at least 75 % of the member bodies casting a vote.
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of patent
rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
ISO 704 was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 37, Terminology and other language and content
resources, Subcommittee SC 1, Principles and methods.
This third edition cancels and replaces the second edition (ISO 704:2000), which has been technically revised.
iv © ISO 2009 – All rights reserved
0 Introduction
0.1 Overview
The terminological principles and methods provided in this International Standard are based on current
thinking and practices in terminology work.
Terminology work is multidisciplinary and draws support from a number of disciplines (e.g. logic, epistemology,
philosophy of science, linguistics, translation studies, information science and cognitive sciences) in its study
of concepts and their representations in special language and general language. It combines elements from
many theoretical approaches that deal with the description, ordering and transfer of knowledge.
The terminology work dealt with in this International Standard is concerned with terminology used for
unambiguous communication in natural, human language. The goal of terminology work as described in this
International Standard is, thus, a clarification and standardization of concepts and terminology for
communication between humans. Terminology work may be used as input for information modelling and data
modelling, but this International Standard does not cover the relation with these fields.
In line with the current trend in standardization towards providing guiding principles, this International
Standard is intended to standardize the essential elements for terminology work. The general purposes of this
International Standard are to provide a common framework of thinking and to explain how this thinking should
be implemented by an organization or group.
It is further intended to provide assistance to those involved in terminology management. The principles and
methods should be observed not only for the manipulation of terminological information but also in the
planning and decision-making involved in managing a stock of terminology. The main activities include, but
are not limited to, the following:
— identifying concepts and concept relations;
— analysing and modelling concept systems on the basis of identified concepts and concept
relations;
— establishing representations of concept systems through concept diagrams;
— defining concepts;
— attributing designations (predominantly terms) to each concept in one or more languages;
— recording and presenting terminological data, principally in print and electronic media
(terminography).
Objects, concepts, designations and definitions are fundamental to terminology work and therefore form the
basis of this International Standard. Objects are perceived or conceived and abstracted into concepts which,
in special languages, are represented by designations and/or definitions. The set of designations belonging to
one special language constitutes the terminology of a specific subject field.
0.2 Conventions and notation
In this International Standard and for the English language, ‘terminology work’ designates the discipline;
‘terminology’ used in the plural or preceded by an article refers to the set of designations of a particular
subject field, such as legal terminology.
For the sake of consistency in reference to objects, concepts, definitions, and designations, the following
wording conventions are used in this International Standard:
— objects
are perceived or conceived;
are abstracted or conceptualized into concepts;
— concepts
depict or correspond to objects or sets of objects;
are represented or expressed in language by designations or by definitions;
are organized into concept systems;
— designations (terms, appellations or symbols)
designate or represent a concept;
are attributed to a concept;
⎯ definitions
define, represent or describe the concept.
The more complex a concept system is, the more useful it is to clarify relations among concepts by
representing them formally or graphically. Concept relations can be represented formally in a list. The formal
representations used in this International Standard are indented and numbered with a full stop (period) (.) for
generic relations and numbered with a dash (–) for partitive relations, as in the following models:
For generic relations: For partitive relations:
vi © ISO 2009 – All rights reserved
The graphic representations used in this International Standard are the most typical ones. The use of
UML (Unified Modeling Language) notation for terminology work is described in ISO/TR 24156.
tree diagram to represent generic concept relations
rake diagram to represent partitive concept relations
line with arrowheads at each end to represent associative
concept relations
The notation used throughout this International Standard is as follows:
⎯ terms designating concepts defined in ISO 1087-1:2000 are in italics;
⎯ concepts are indicated by single quotes;
⎯ designations (terms, appellations or symbols) are in boldface;
⎯ characteristics are underlined;
⎯ examples are boxed.
This International Standard follows the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2, 2004 with regard to the use of “shall”, which
indicates a requirement and the use of “should”, which indicates a recommendation.
It should be noted that the examples in this International Standard have been chosen and simplified for
illustrative purposes. Translation into other languages may necessitate the selection of other examples to
illustrate the points.
It should also be noted that the examples of term-formation methods, in Annex B, are specific to the English
language in the English version and to the French language in the French version. Annex B should not be
translated, but should be adapted to the needs of each language.
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO 704:2009(E)
Terminology work — Principles and methods
1 Scope
This International Standard establishes the basic principles and methods for preparing and compiling
terminologies both inside and outside the framework of standardization, and describes the links between
objects, concepts, and their terminological representations. It also establishes general principles governing the
formation of terms and appellations and the formulation of definitions. Full and complete understanding of
these principles requires some background knowledge of terminology work. The principles are general in
nature and this International Standard is applicable to terminology work in scientific, technological, industrial,
administrative and other fields of knowledge.
This International Standard does not stipulate procedures for the layout of international terminology standards,
which are treated in ISO 10241.
2 Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document. For dated
references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced
document (including any amendments) applies.
ISO 1087-1, Terminology work — Vocabulary — Part 1: Theory and application
3 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, the terms and definitions given in ISO 1087-1 and the following apply.
3.1
stipulative definition
definition which results from adapting a lexical definition to a unique situation for a given purpose and which is
not standard usage
3.2
ostensive definition
demonstrative definition
definition which exhibits one or more representative object(s) in the extension of the concept
3.3
specialized concept
concept which reflects specific or technical knowledge within a given subject field
3.4
terminological resource
terminological data collection
TDC
text or data resource consisting of terminological entries
1)
NOTE Adapted form ISO 26162:— .
3.5
terminology product
product that supports special language use or the field of terminology
NOTE Products that support special language use refer to dictionaries, databases, and other products for the
dissemination of specialized terminology while products that support the field of terminology refer to journals, training
manuals, tools, etc.
[ISO 22128:2008, definition 3.13]
3.6
terminographical product
terminology product consisting of a set of designations and terminological and/or linguistic information to
support special language use
[ISO 22128:2008, definition 3.9]
4 Objects
In terminology work, an object is defined as anything perceived or conceived. Some objects, such as a
machine, a diamond, or a river, should be considered concrete or material; others, such as each manifestation
of financial planning, gravity, fluidity, or a conversion ratio, should be considered immaterial or abstract; still
others, for example, a unicorn, a philosopher's stone or a literary character should be considered purely
imaginary. In the course of producing a terminology, philosophical discussions on whether an object actually
exists in reality are unproductive and should be avoided. Attention should be focused on how one deals with
objects for the purposes of communication.
Objects are described and identified by their properties (see example in 5.4.1), but neither properties of
specific objects nor the objects themselves are recorded in the terminological resource.
5 Concepts
5.1 Nature of concepts for terminology work
In communication, not every individual object in the world is differentiated and named. Instead, through
observation and a process of abstraction called conceptualization, objects are categorized into classes, which
correspond to units of knowledge called concepts, which are represented in various forms of communication
(object → concept → communication). This International Standard does not deal with all concepts represented
in language but only with those represented by the terminology of specialized fields. For terminology work,
concepts shall be considered mental representations of objects within a specialized context or field.
Concepts are not to be confused with abstract or imagined objects (i.e. concrete, abstract or imagined objects
in a given context are observed and conceptualized mentally and then a designation is attributed to the
concept rather than to the objects themselves). The link between an object and its corresponding designation
or definition is made through the concept, a higher level of abstraction.
1) To be published.
2 © ISO 2009 – All rights reserved
Producing a terminology requires an understanding of the conceptualization that underpins human knowledge
in a subject area. Because terminology work always deals with specialized language in a particular field of
knowledge (i.e. a subject field), the concept should be viewed not only as a unit of thought but also as a unit of
knowledge.
The concepts contextualized in the special language of the subject field can be represented in the various
forms of human communication according to the system used. In natural language, concepts can be
represented by terms, appellations, definitions or other linguistic forms; they may also be represented by
symbols; in artificial language, they can be represented by codes or formulae, while in multimedia they can be
represented by icons, pictures, diagrams, graphics, sound clips, video or other multimedia representations.
Concepts may also be represented with the human body as they are in sign language, facial expressions or
body movements. This International Standard does not deal with the representation of concepts by sign or
body language.
Concepts are described and identified by their characteristics (see 5.4.2, Example 2).
5.2 General concepts
When a concept depicts or corresponds to a set of two or more objects which form a group by reason of
common properties, it is called a general concept and, in special languages, the designation takes the form of
a term (e.g. floppy disk, liquidity, money market fund, etc.) or a symbol (e.g. ©, W, $).
5.3 Individual concepts
When the concept depicts or corresponds to a single object or when an object comprising a
unique composition of entities is considered a single entity, it is called an individual concept and is
represented in special language as an appellation (e.g. United Nations, Internet, World Wide Web) or a
symbol (e.g. Africa; Statue of Liberty). Appellations refer to individual concepts and comprise
names, titles and other similar forms and shall be distinguished from terms that refer to general concepts.
It follows that any unique object shall be considered an individual concept. When an individual concept is
designated by an appellation constructed by conjoined entities, it is still considered an individual concept even
though conjoined words or terms usually signal more than one concept.
EXAMPLE
A conjoined multi-name appellation in which there is elision of the headword can be viewed as a single individual
concept. For example, a whole with X parts, as in the case of North, Central, and South America (a single region made
up of the three parts) as opposed to the three appellations ‘North America’, ‘Central America’, and ‘South America’,
which are viewed as three separate individual concepts.
A multi-word appellation with conjoined modifiers is to be interpreted as a single entity and it designates an individual
concept, for example: The Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission is to be interpreted as
one entity, not two, i.e. not as the ‘Canadian Radio-television Commission’ and the ‘Canadian Telecommunications
Commission’. Similarly, Sunnybrook and Women's Colleges Health Sciences Centre is one entity.
An individual concept in a generic concept system cannot be subdivided further, while an individual concept in
a partitive concept system can be subdivided into its parts (see 5.5.2.2.2 and 5.5.2.3.2).
5.4 Characteristics
5.4.1 Nature of characteristics
Concept formation plays a pivotal role in organizing human knowledge because it provides the means for
recognizing objects and for grouping them into meaningful units in a particular field. In order to categorize an
object for the purposes of concept formation, it is necessary to identify its properties (see the example below).
Objects perceived as sharing the same properties are grouped into units. Once similar objects, or occasionally
a single object, are viewed as a meaningful unit of knowledge within a branch of human knowledge, the
properties of an object, or those common to a set of objects, are abstracted as characteristics that are
combined as a set in the formation of a concept.
Thus, objects in the real world are identified by their properties. The objects are then abstracted as concepts
and the properties are abstracted as characteristics making up the concepts. Abstraction is the process of
recognizing some set of common features in an individual set of objects and, on that basis, forming a concept
of that set of objects. Characteristics are qualifiers and narrow the meaning of a superordinate concept (see
5.5.2.1). It should be noted that ‘characteristic’ is a linguistic concept which should not be confused with the
information technology (IT) concept ‘property’.
EXAMPLE
Real World Abstraction
is abstracted into
object concep t
has constitutes
property characteristic
is abstracted by
The relations between these four concepts might be further elucidated by the following statements.
⎯ Each object has one or multiple properties.
⎯ Each property of a similar kind is abstracted into one characteristic.
⎯ Each characteristic is part of one or multiple concepts.
⎯ Each concept is constituted by one or multiple characteristics.
⎯ Each object is abstracted into one or multiple concepts.
5.4.2 Terminological analysis
The coming together of a unique set of characteristics to make a concept is an everyday occurrence. The
concept made up of this set of characteristics is represented by a designation (i.e. a term, appellation or
symbol). Since a designation is not attributed to an object but to a concept, the latter depicting one or more
objects, terminological analysis is based upon a representation of the concept in the form of a designation or a
definition. Therefore, the methodology used in the analysis of terminologies requires:
⎯ identifying the context or subject field;
⎯ identifying the properties attributed to objects in the subject field;
4 © ISO 2009 – All rights reserved
⎯ determining those properties which are abstracted into characteristics;
⎯ combining the characteristics to form a concept;
⎯ attributing a designation.
It should also be noted that the properties used to state properties that describe an object and the
characteristics that make up a concept designate in themselves concepts, sometimes within the same
specialized field, sometimes not. It may be useful to begin an analysis with those concepts corresponding to
concrete objects, since the characteristics are more easily abstracted given that the properties of the objects
can be physically observed or examined.
In an abstract way, terminological analysis should begin with the objects in question and the subject field
contextualizing those objects. Properties shall be ascribed only to objects. A terminologist begins by analysing
discourse texts which refer to objects to see how they are designated in language. By analysing a certain
number of discourse texts, the terminologist can get an understanding of the properties of the various
referents in the different discourse texts, so as to determine those properties that can be abstracted as
characteristics, as opposed to those properties that are unique to an individual object and, therefore, cannot
be seen as characteristics.
EXAMPLE 1
The specific objects designated by the visual representations below have the following specific properties:
⎯ a device; ⎯ a device; ⎯ a device;
⎯ ivory-coloured; ⎯ blue and grey; ⎯ black-grey;
⎯ hand-manoeuvred along a ⎯ hand-manoeuvred along a ⎯ hand-manoeuvred along a
firm, flat surface; firm, flat surface; firm, flat surface;
⎯ has a ball on its underside; ⎯ has a ball on its underside; ⎯ has a ball on its underside;
⎯ has three buttons; ⎯ has two buttons; ⎯ has two buttons;
⎯ has a wire for connecting to a ⎯ has a wire for connecting to ⎯ has a wire for connecting to
computer; a computer; a computer;
⎯ rollers detect the movement ⎯ rollers detect the movement ⎯ rollers detect the movement
of the ball; of the ball; of the ball;
⎯ the ball controls the ⎯ the ball controls the ⎯ the ball controls the
movement of a cursor on a movement of a cursor on a movement of a cursor on a
computer display screen. computer display screen. computer display screen.
If the objects in Example 1 are contextualized in the field of computer hardware, these particular objects are
recognized as belonging to the set of objects that has been conceptualized as ‘mechanical mouse’. In the
process of conceptualization, the properties of all the objects in the category are abstracted into
characteristics, that is, the properties of the objects are converted into generalizations applied to the entire set
as opposed to the individual objects, as illustrated in Example 2.
To facilitate this analysis, the properties of objects may be grouped into categories such as part, function,
composition, colour, shape, operation, location. Categories appropriate to the subject field can be found from
reference works and encyclopedias, but any list has to be used flexibly, and it should be assumed that
additional categories are likely to be needed to adequately represent all the properties. For practical purposes,
beginning with one of the more typical objects is recommended. The identification of characteristics shall be
based on specialized knowledge in the field and this often requires research. Experienced terminologists for
whom the concept in question is clear and straightforward may move directly to identifying the characteristics.
The following example is a preliminary analysis of the concept ‘mechanical mouse’. Concepts denoting
non-physical objects, e.g. ‘bankruptcy’, shall be analysed along the same lines.
EXAMPLE 2
Concept: abstraction based on the set of all mechanical mice
Designation (term): mechanical mouse
Properties of Object 1 Properties of Object 2 Properties of Object 3 Characteristics
hand-manoeuvred along a hand-manoeuvred along a hand-manoeuvred along a being hand-manoeuvred
firm, flat surface firm, flat surface firm, flat surface along a firm, flat surface
has a ball on its underside has a ball on its underside has a ball on its underside having a ball on its underside
has three buttons has two buttons has three buttons having at least one button
has a wire for connecting to has a wire for connecting to has a wire for connecting to a having a wire for connecting
a computer a computer computer to a computer
having rollers (mechanical
rollers detect the movement rollers detect the movement rollers detect the movement
sensors) for detecting ball-
of the ball of the ball; of the ball
movement
ivory-coloured blue black having colour
NOTE This characteristic
is inherited from a
superordinate concept at a
very high level, e.g. ‘physical
object’.
Characteristics shall be used in the analysis of concepts, the modelling of concept systems, and in the
formulation of definitions and, where appropriate, should have a bearing on the selection and formation of
designations.
Note that in selecting properties and characteristics, these purposes need to be borne in mind, since the
number of properties that distinguish one object from another is effectively infinite. So, for example, in the
case of computer mice, one might observe that place of manufacture is a characteristic which need not be
considered. Again, the experienced terminologist will be well-placed to anticipate what is likely to be required.
5.4.3 Intension and extension
The set of characteristics that come together to form the concept is called the intension of the concept. The
set of objects conceptualized as a concept is known as the extension of the concept. The two, the intension
and the extension, are interdependent. For example, the characteristics making up the intension of
‘mechanical mouse’ determine the extension or the objects that qualify as mechanical mice.
5.4.4 Shared vs. delimiting characteristics
After identifying the characteristics that make up the intension of a concept, the terminological analysis shall
be taken a step further. Each characteristic of the concept under study shall be analysed in relation to the
related concepts in the concept system. Similarities between concepts are indicated by shared characteristics;
differences that set a concept apart are signalled by delimiting characteristics (see 5.5.2.2.1, Example 4).
A characteristic is delimiting with respect to two concepts if it distinguishes these concepts from each other.
The same characteristic of a concept may be delimiting in relation to one related concept but shared with
another related concept. Analysing the similarities and differences between concepts will result in identifying
6 © ISO 2009 – All rights reserved
the unique set of characteristics that typify a given concept. Specification of this unique combination of
characteristics will situate the concept within a network of related concepts with similar or different
characteristics. The relations between the concepts shall be used to determine the basic structure of a
concept system (see 5.6). The task of defining a concept requires knowledge of the characteristics used to
develop the concept system.
5.4.5 Necessary, sufficient, and essential characteristics
In some fields, e.g. IT and logic, a distinction is made between necessary, sufficient, and essential
characteristics and, while they are not relevant to terminology work, they are described here for informative
purposes.
Necessary characteristics hold for all objects in the extension of a concept, i.e. they correspond to properties
that all objects in the extension must have.
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the concept of ‘right-angled triangle with sides 3, 4 and 5 cm’. For all objects in the extension of this concept, all
the characteristics below necessarily hold, i.e. all objects have the corresponding properties. These are necessary
characteristics of the concept.
Characteristics Properties of any object in the extension
Length of one side of the right angle: 3 cm Length of one side of the right angle: 3 cm
Length of the other side of the right angle: 4 cm Length of the other side of the right angle: 4 cm
Length of hypotenuse: 5 cm Length of hypotenuse: 5 cm
NOTE For all right-angled triangles, it holds that
2 2 2
a + b = c
where a, b and c are the lengths of three sides in the triangle. Therefore, the length of one side can always be calculated
from the length of the other two, and hence any two of the characteristics will be enough to uniquely define the concept.
Note that even though three different definitions can be given, the concept remains the unique combination of
characteristics listed above.
A sufficient characteristic is one of a set of characteristics that determines whether a specific object belongs in
the extension of a given concept. A sufficient characteristic is not necessarily true of all objects in the
extension of the concept, but any object having the properties corresponding to the characteristics in this set
belong to the extension of the concept.
EXAMPLE 2
Any object that has the properties corresponding to the characteristics having given birth and being human belongs in
the extension of the concept ‘woman’, but not all women have given birth.
NOTE Since sufficient characteristics do not necessarily hold of all objects in the extension of a concept, they cannot
be used to define that concept.
An essential characteristic is one of a set of characteristics that is both necessary and sufficient to determine
the extension of a concept.
EXAMPLE 3
At present, the property of being the “fourth day of the month of July” is both necessary and sufficient for an object
belonging to the extension of the concept ‘Independence Day in the United States of America’.
The distinction between necessary, sufficient, and essential characteristics has to do with the identification of
the extension of concepts. Terminology work is concerned with the intension and designation of concepts, and
in this context necessary, sufficient, and essential characteristics are not used.
5.5 Concept relations
5.5.1 Types of concept relations
Concepts do not exist as isolated units of knowledge but always in relation to each other. Our thought
processes constantly create and refine the relations between concepts, whether these relations are formally
acknowledged or not. A set of concepts structured according to the relations among them is said to form a
concept system.
In organizing concepts into a concept system, it is necessary to bear in mind the subject field that gave rise to
the concept and to consider the expectations and objectives of the target users. The subject field shall act as
the framework within which the concept field, the set of thematically related but unstructured concepts, is
established.
EXAMPLE
If our task were to list and compile the terminology of pointing devices for computer hardware, our example of
‘mechanical mouse’ would form part of the concept field dealing with mice as conceptualized by those in the subject field
of computer hardware.
NOTE Mice outside the subject field of computer hardware, such as field mice or laboratory mice, would be
excluded.
To model a concept system, the concepts of the concept field have to be examined and compared. In
terminology work, at least the following relations shall be used to model a concept system:
⎯ hierarchical relations:
⎯ generic relations;
⎯ partitive relations;
⎯ associative relations.
Concept systems are represented graphically by concept diagrams.
5.5.2 Hierarchical relations
5.5.2.1 Types of hierarchical relations
In a hierarchical relation, concepts are organized into levels of superordinate and subordinate concepts. For
there to be a hierarchy, there must be at least one subordinate concept below a superordinate concept.
Superordinate concepts can be subdivided according to more than one criterion of subdivision (i.e. they can
be viewed from more than one dimension), in which case the resulting concept system is said to be
multidimensional. Subordinate concepts at the same level and resulting from the application of the same
criterion of subdivision are called coordinate concepts. Concepts are superordinate, subordinate or coordinate,
not on their own, but always in relation to each other in a hierarchy.
In this International Standard, two types of hierarchical relations are recognized:
⎯ generic relations;
⎯ partitive relations.
8 © ISO 2009 – All rights reserved
5.5.2.2 Generic relations
5.5.2.2.1 Generic relations and general concepts
As mentioned in 5.4.2, the characteristics associated with a concept constitute its intension, and all the objects
included in the set of objects associated with the concept constitute its extension. A generic relation exists
between two concepts when the intension of the subordinate concept includes the intension of the
superordinate concept plus at least one additional delimiting characteristic. For example, the intension of
‘mechanical mouse’ comprises that of ‘computer mouse’ plus the delimiting characteristic having rollers
(mechanical sensors) for detecting ball-movement (see Example 2).
In a generic relation, the inclusion relationship between the extensions of the two concepts is the inverse, i.e.
the extension of the superordinate concept includes that of the subordinate concept. For example, the
extension of ‘computer mouse’ includes that of ‘mechanical mouse’ since some of the objects categorized as
computer mice can also be categorized as mechanical mice.
The superordinate concept in a generic relation is called the generic concept and the subordinate concept is
called the specific concept.
An important feature of the generic relation is that it assumes inheritance, i.e. if concept B (e.g. ‘mechanical
mouse’) is a specific concept of the generic concept A (e.g. ‘computer mouse’), then concept B inherits all the
characteristics of concept A. The inheritance principle is a way of testing and validating the generic
relationship (see Example 3). In keeping with the metaphor implied by the concept of inheritance, a generic
concept is often called a parent, a specific concept is a child, and coordinate concepts are siblings.
When documenting characteristics associated with concepts, instead of listing inherited characteristics
redundantly for subordinate concepts, they shall be listed only with the generic concept. Under the specific
concept, it is possible simply to list only the additional characteristic(s) that delimits the specific concept from
its generic concept and/or from its fellow coordinate concepts. Inherited characteristics can be obtained at the
level above in the concept system.
EXAMPLE 1
In the concept diagram below, ‘computer mouse’ is a specific concept in relation to the generic concept, ‘pointing device’.
Similarly, the concepts ‘mechanical mouse’, ‘optomechanical mouse’, and ‘optical mouse’ are each a specific concept in
relation to the generic concept ‘computer mouse’. Each of the coordinate concepts ‘mechanical mouse’, ‘optomechanical
mouse’ and ‘optical mouse’ has a generic relation with the generic concept ‘computer mouse’.
pointing
device
...
touch pad
computer
...
light pen
mouse
mechanical optomechanical optical
mouse mouse mouse
Comparing the characteristics of a concept and its related concepts (i.e. generic, coordinate and specific) may
require an adjustment and refinement of the intension.
EXAMPLE 2
Comparison of the characteristics of ‘mechanical mouse’ with related concepts in Example 3
Usage
hand-manoeuvred along a firm, flat DELIMITING in relation to the generic ‘pointing device’ but
surface INHERITED from the generic ‘computer mouse’, and SHARED
with the coordinates ‘optomechanical mouse’ and ‘optical
mouse’
Composition has a ball on its underside SHARED with the coordinate ‘optomechanical mouse’ but
DELIMITING in relation to all other concepts in question
Composition
has at least one button DELIMITING in relation to the generic ‘pointing device’ but
INHERITED from the generic ‘computer mouse’, and SHARED
with the coordinates ‘optomechanical mouse’ and ‘optical
mouse’
Function having rollers (mechanical sensors) DELIMITING in relation to all other concepts in question
for detecting ball-movement
Function ball movement controls the SHARED with the coordinate ‘optomechanical mouse’ but
movement of a pointer on a DELIMITING in relation to all other concepts in question
computer display screen
NOTE The characteristics having colour and having a wire for connecting to a computer have now been dispensed with as they are
considered to have no importance in relation to subsequent analysis.
10 © ISO 2009 – All rights reserved
EXAMPLE 3
pointing device
a
- concreteness : a device
- controls movement of the
cursor or pointer on a display
screen
... computer mouse
touch pad
...
light pen
- type of pointing dev ice
- has at least one but ton
- moves on a firm, flat surfa ce
mechanical mo optomecuse hanical m optical ouse mou se
- type of computer mo use - - type of computer
- type of computer mo use
mou se
- rollers and light sensors
- rollers (mechanical sensors)
detect ball movement - - light (more recently
detect ball mov ement
light emitting diodes)
- ball movement moves
- ball movement moves pointer
used to detect
pointer on the display scr een
on the display scr een
mouse move ment
a
Concreteness is listed here as a reminder that pointing devices are concrete objects.
According to the principle of inheritance, a ‘mechanical mouse’ is a type of or kind of ‘computer mouse’, which is in
turn a kind of ‘pointing device’. The set of all mechanical mice is a subset of all computer mice. This means that all
mechanical mice are also computer mice, and that the intension of ‘computer mouse’ has to apply to or is inherited by
the concept of ‘mechanical mouse’. When the subset is defined, however, mechanical mice are distinguished from
other computer mice by at least one more additional characteristic not shared by the other computer mice. This means
that ‘computer mouse’ has a smaller intension than ‘mechanical mouse’. The criterion used to increase the specificity
of the concept is the nature of the sensors that convert the computer mouse's movement into a means of pointing on
the computer screen.
A sequence of concepts reflecting generic concept relations constitutes a vertical ↓ series of concepts with
inheritance (called a concept ladder), whereas a group of coordinate concepts, i.e. concepts that rank at the
same level of abstraction in a concept system, form a horizontal → series of concepts.
As already mentioned, in a generic relation there may be several ways of subdividing a concept into
subordinate concepts depending on the criteria of subdivision or type of characteristic chosen.
EXAMPLE 4
pointing device
a
- concreteness : a device
- c
...
NORME ISO
INTERNATIONALE 704
Troisième édition
2009-11-01
Travail terminologique — Principes et
méthodes
Terminology work — Principles and methods
Numéro de référence
©
ISO 2009
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Publié en Suisse
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Sommaire Page
Avant-propos .iv
0 Introduction.v
1 Domaine d'application .1
2 Références normatives.1
3 Termes et définitions .1
4 Objets.2
5 Concepts .2
5.1 Nature des concepts dans le travail terminologique.2
5.2 Concepts généraux .3
5.3 Concepts uniques .3
5.4 Caractères .4
5.5 Relations entre concepts.8
5.6 Systèmes de concepts.18
6 Définitions .22
6.1 Nature des définitions.22
6.2 Définitions par intension .22
6.3 Rédaction des définitions.23
6.4 Informations supplémentaires sur la définition .28
6.5 Définitions inexactes.30
7 Désignations .34
7.1 Types de désignations.34
7.2 Termes.34
7.3 Appellations .36
7.4 Formation des termes et des appellations .38
7.5 Symboles.42
Annexe A (informative) Autres types de définitions .44
Annexe B (informative) Exemples de méthodes de formation des termes.51
Annexe C (informative) Catégories d'appellations .56
Index .60
Bibliographie.64
Avant-propos
L'ISO (Organisation internationale de normalisation) est une fédération mondiale d'organismes nationaux de
normalisation (comités membres de l'ISO). L'élaboration des Normes internationales est en général confiée
aux comités techniques de l'ISO. Chaque comité membre intéressé par une étude a le droit de faire partie du
comité technique créé à cet effet. Les organisations internationales, gouvernementales et non
gouvernementales, en liaison avec l'ISO participent également aux travaux. L'ISO collabore étroitement avec
la Commission électrotechnique internationale (CEI) en ce qui concerne la normalisation électrotechnique.
Les Normes internationales sont rédigées conformément aux règles données dans les Directives ISO/CEI,
Partie 2.
La tâche principale des comités techniques est d'élaborer les Normes internationales. Les projets de Normes
internationales adoptés par les comités techniques sont soumis aux comités membres pour vote. Leur
publication comme Normes internationales requiert l'approbation de 75 % au moins des comités membres
votants.
L'attention est appelée sur le fait que certains des éléments du présent document peuvent faire l'objet de
droits de propriété intellectuelle ou de droits analogues. L'ISO ne saurait être tenue pour responsable de ne
pas avoir identifié de tels droits de propriété et averti de leur existence.
L'ISO 704 a été élaborée par le comité technique ISO/TC 37, Terminologie et autres ressources langagières
et ressources de contenu, sous-comité SC 1, Principes et méthodes.
Cette troisième édition annule et remplace la deuxième édition (ISO 704:2000), qui a fait l'objet d'une révision
technique.
iv © ISO 2009 – Tous droits réservés
0 Introduction
0.1 Vue d'ensemble
Les principes et méthodes de la terminologie énoncés dans la présente Norme internationale reposent sur les
réflexions et pratiques actuelles en matière de travail terminologique.
Le travail terminologique est pluridisciplinaire et a recours à de nombreuses disciplines (logique,
épistémologie, philosophie des sciences, linguistique, études en traduction, sciences de l'information et
sciences cognitives) dans l'étude des concepts et de leur représentation dans une langue de spécialité ou une
langue générale. Il combine les éléments provenant de différentes approches théoriques traitant de la
description, de l'organisation et du transfert des connaissances.
Le travail terminologique traité dans la présente Norme internationale se rapporte à la terminologie employée
en vue de communications univoques dans le langage humain naturel. L'objectif du travail terminologique, tel
que décrit dans le présent document, est par conséquent la clarification et la normalisation des concepts et
des terminologies pour la communication entre humains. Le travail terminologique peut servir à la
modélisation des informations et des données, toutefois la présente Norme internationale ne traite pas des
relations avec ces domaines.
Conformément à la tendance actuelle de la normalisation à fournir des principes directeurs, la présente
Norme internationale est destinée à normaliser les éléments essentiels du travail terminologique. L'objectif
général de la présente Norme internationale est de fournir un cadre commun de réflexion et d'expliquer
comment une organisation ou un groupe devrait mettre en œuvre cette réflexion.
La présente Norme internationale est également destinée à aider les gestionnaires de la terminologie. Il
convient que ses principes et méthodes énoncés dans cette norme soient observés non seulement lors du
traitement des données terminologiques mais également lors de la planification et de la prise de décisions
relatives à la gestion d'un fonds terminologique. Voici, de manière non exhaustive, les principales activités
concernées:
⎯ l'identification des concepts et des relations entre concepts;
⎯ l'analyse et la modélisation des systèmes de concepts à partir des concepts et des relations entre les
concepts identifiés;
⎯ l'élaboration de représentations des systèmes de concepts au moyen de schémas conceptuels;
⎯ la définition des concepts;
⎯ l'attribution de désignations (principalement de termes) à chaque concept dans une ou plusieurs langues;
⎯ l'enregistrement et présentation des données terminologiques, essentiellement sur des supports
imprimés ou électroniques (terminographie).
Les objets, les concepts, les désignations et les définitions sont les éléments fondamentaux du travail
terminologique et forment par conséquent la base de la présente Norme internationale. Les objets sont perçus
ou conçus puis, par abstraction, ramenés à des concepts eux-mêmes représentés, dans des langues de
spécialité, par des désignations et/ou des définitions. L'ensemble des désignations appartenant à une langue
de spécialité constitue la terminologie d'un domaine particulier.
0.2 Conventions et système de notation
Dans la présente Norme internationale et pour la langue française, le «travail terminologique» désignera la
discipline et «terminologie», utilisé au pluriel ou précédé d'un article, renverra à l'ensemble des désignations
d'un domaine particulier, tel que la terminologie juridique.
Pour maintenir une certaine cohérence lorsqu'il est fait référence aux objets, aux concepts, aux définitions et
aux désignations, les conventions de formulation suivantes ont été adoptées dans la présente Norme
internationale:
⎯ les objets
sont perçus ou conçus;
sont abstraits ou conceptualisés sous forme de concepts;
⎯ les concepts
décrivent ou correspondent à des objets ou à des ensembles d'objets;
sont représentés ou exprimés dans une langue par des désignations ou par des définitions;
sont organisés en systèmes de concepts;
⎯ les désignations (termes, appellations ou symboles)
désignent ou représentent un concept;
sont attribuées à un concept;
⎯ les définitions
définissent, représentent ou décrivent le concept.
Plus un système de concepts est complexe, plus il est nécessaire de clarifier les relations qui existent entre
les différents concepts en les représentant de manière formelle ou graphique. Les relations entre concepts
peuvent être représentées de manière formelle dans une liste. Les représentations sous forme de liste
utilisées dans la présente Norme internationale sont structurées par des indentations numérotées et
précédées d'un point (.) pour les relations génériques ou précédées d'un tiret (–) pour les relations partitives
comme le montrent les modèles suivants:
Relations génériques: Relations partitives:
Les représentations graphiques utilisées dans la présente Norme internationale sont les plus courantes.
L'application de la notation UML (Unified Modeling Language) dans le travail terminologique est décrite dans
l'ISO TR 24156.
vi © ISO 2009 – Tous droits réservés
Représentation en arbre des relations génériques entre les
concepts
Représentation en râteau des relations partitives
Ligne avec une flèche à chaque bout pour représenter des
relations associatives entre les concepts
Le système de notation utilisé tout au long du document est le suivant:
— termes désignant les concepts définis dans l'ISO 1087-1:2000 sont en italiques;
— les concepts sont entre guillemets;
— les désignations (termes, appellations ou symboles) sont en caractères gras;
— les caractères sont soulignés;
— les exemples figurent dans des encadrés.
La présente Norme internationale suit les Directives ISO/CEI, Partie 2, 2004, concernant l'utilisation du verbe
«devoir» pour exprimer une obligation et la locution «il convient de», ou locutions équivalentes, pour formuler
une recommandation.
Il est à noter que les exemples figurant dans la présente Norme internationale ont été choisis et simplifiés à
des fins d'illustration. Lors de la traduction en d'autres langues, il peut être nécessaire de choisir d'autres
exemples pour illustrer le point en question.
Il est également à noter que les exemples des méthodes de formation des termes donnés dans l'Annexe B
sont spécifiques à la langue anglaise dans la version anglaise et à la langue française dans la version
française. Il est recommandé de ne pas traduire l'Annexe B mais de l'adapter aux contraintes de chaque
langue.
NORME INTERNATIONALE ISO 704:2009(F)
Travail terminologique — Principes et méthodes
1 Domaine d'application
La présente Norme internationale établit et harmonise les principes fondamentaux et les méthodes permettant
d'élaborer et de compiler des terminologies, qu'il s'agisse d'activités menées dans le cadre de la normalisation
ou non, et décrit les liens établis entre les objets, les concepts et leur représentation par des terminologies.
Elle fixe également des principes généraux qui régissent la formation des termes et appellations et la
formulation des définitions. Pour une compréhension complète et approfondie de ces principes, des
connaissances de fond du travail terminologique sont nécessaires. Il s'agit de principes de nature générale et
la présente Norme internationale s'applique aux travaux terminologiques effectués dans les domaines
scientifiques, technologiques, industriels, administratifs, ainsi que dans les autres domaines de la
connaissance.
La présente Norme internationale ne décrit pas les méthodes de présentation des Normes internationales de
terminologie; celles-ci sont traitées dans l'ISO 10241.
2 Références normatives
Les documents suivants cités en référence sont indispensables à l'application du présent document. Pour les
références datées, seule l'édition citée s'applique. Pour les références non datées, la dernière édition de la
publication à laquelle il est fait référence s'applique (y compris les amendements).
ISO 1087-1, Travaux terminologiques — Vocabulaire — Partie 1: Théorie et application
3 Termes et définitions
Pour les besoins de la présente Norme internationale, les termes et définitions donnés dans l'ISO 1087-1
ainsi que les suivants s'appliquent.
3.1
définition stipulative
définition résultant de l'adaptation d'une définition lexicale à une situation unique, dans un but précis, ne
caractérisant pas un usage commun
3.2
définition ostensive
définition démonstrative
définition illustrant un ou plusieurs objets représentatifs dans l'extension du concept
3.3
concept spécialisé
concept reflétant un savoir spécifique ou technique, dans un domaine donné
3.4
ressource terminologique
ensemble de données terminologiques
ressource textuelle ou sous forme de données comprenant des entrées terminologiques
1)
NOTE Adapté de l'ISO 26162:— .
3.5
produit terminologique
produit facilitant l'utilisation d'une langue de spécialité ou relatif au domaine de la terminologie
NOTE Les produits facilitant l'utilisation d'une langue de spécialité sont les dictionnaires, bases de données et autres
produits destinés à la diffusion d'une terminologie spécialisée, tandis que les produits relatifs au domaine de la
terminologie sont les revues, manuels de formation, outils, etc.
[ISO 22128:2008, définition 3.13]
3.6
produit terminographique
produit terminologique comprenant un ensemble de désignations et d'informations terminologiques et/ou
linguistiques destiné à faciliter l'utilisation d'une langue de spécialité
[ISO 22128:2008, définition 3.9]
4 Objets
En matière de travail terminologique, un objet est défini comme ce qui peut être perçu ou conçu. Il convient de
considérer certains objets tels qu'une machine, un diamant ou une rivière comme concrets ou matériels;
d'autres objets comme immatériels ou abstraits, notamment un plan financier, la gravité, la fluidité ou un taux
de conversion et d'autres encore comme purement imaginaires, par exemple, une licorne, la pierre
philosophale ou un personnage de la littérature. Lors de la production d'une terminologie, les discussions
philosophiques sur le fait qu'un objet a ou non une réalité sont stériles et il est par conséquent recommandé
de les éviter. Il convient plutôt de se concentrer sur la manière dont les objets sont utilisés à des fins de
communication.
Les objets sont décrits et identifiés par leurs propriétés (voir 5.4.2, Exemple 1), mais ce ne sont ni les
propriétés d'objets spécifiques ni les objets eux-mêmes que répertorie la ressource terminologique.
5 Concepts
5.1 Nature des concepts dans le travail terminologique
En matière de communication, tous les objets de l'univers ne sont pas différenciés et ne portent pas tous un
nom. Par contre, grâce à l'observation et à un processus d'abstraction appelé conceptualisation, les objets
sont classés dans des catégories, qui correspondent à des unités de connaissance appelées concepts, eux-
mêmes représentés sous différentes formes de communication (objet → concept → communication). La
présente Norme internationale ne traite pas de tous les concepts représentés par la langue mais uniquement
de ceux représentés à l'aide de la terminologie de domaines spécialisés. Dans le travail terminologique, les
concepts doivent être considérés comme des représentations mentales d'objets dans un contexte ou un
domaine spécialisé.
Il ne faut pas confondre les concepts avec les objets abstraits ou imaginaires (dans un contexte donné, les
objets concrets, abstraits ou imaginaires sont observés et conceptualisés mentalement; une désignation est
ensuite attribuée au concept plutôt qu'aux objets eux-mêmes). Le lien entre un objet et sa désignation ou
1) À publier. (Disponible en langue anglaise seulement.)
2 © ISO 2009 – Tous droits réservés
définition correspondante s'effectue par l'intermédiaire du concept, c'est-à-dire un niveau supérieur
d'abstraction.
La production d'une terminologie nécessite une compréhension de la conceptualisation sous-jacente à la
connaissance humaine dans un domaine donné. Étant donné que le travail terminologique traite toujours
d'une langue de spécialité dans un domaine particulier de connaissance (c'est-à-dire un domaine), il convient
de ne pas considérer le concept uniquement comme une unité de pensée mais également comme une unité
de connaissance.
Les concepts contextualisés dans la langue de spécialité d'un domaine peuvent être représentés sous les
différentes formes de la communication humaine en fonction du système utilisé. Dans les langues naturelles,
les concepts peuvent être représentés par des termes, des appellations, des définitions ou d'autres formes
linguistiques; ils peuvent également être représentés par des symboles; dans les langues artificielles, ils
peuvent être représentés par des codes ou des formules, ou dans le domaine du multimédia, être exprimés
sous la forme d'icônes, d'images, de schémas, de graphiques, de bandes audio ou vidéo ou de tout autre type
de représentation multimédia. Les concepts peuvent également être représentés par le corps humain comme
dans la langue des signes, par des expressions du visage ou par des mouvements du corps. La présente
Norme internationale ne traite pas de la représentation des concepts par la langue des signes ou le langage
corporel.
Les concepts sont décrits et identifiés par leurs caractères (voir 5.4.2, Exemple 2).
5.2 Concepts généraux
Lorsqu'un concept décrit ou correspond à un ensemble de deux ou plusieurs objets constituant un groupe de
par des propriétés communes, il est appelé concept général et, dans les langues de spécialité, sa désignation
prend la forme d'un terme (par exemple disquette, liquidité, fonds de placement, etc.) ou d'un symbole
(par exemple ©, W, $).
5.3 Concepts uniques
Lorsqu'un concept décrit ou correspond à un seul objet ou qu'un objet comprenant une combinaison unique
d'entités est considéré comme une entité unique, il est appelé concept unique et est exprimé dans les langues
de spécialité par une appellation (par exemple Nations Unies, Internet, Toile mondiale) ou un symbole (par
exemple Afrique, statue de la Liberté). Les appellations renvoient à des concepts uniques et
comprennent des noms, des titres ou d'autres formes similaires et doivent être différenciées des termes
faisant référence à des concepts généraux.
Il s'ensuit que tout objet distinct doit être considéré comme un concept unique. Lorsqu'un concept unique est
désigné par une appellation formée d'entités liées, il est toujours considéré comme un concept unique même
si des mots ou des termes liés signalent habituellement la présence de plus d'un concept.
EXEMPLE
Une appellation composée de plusieurs mots dans laquelle il y a élision du mot principal peut être considérée comme un
seul concept unique. Par exemple, un tout composé de X parties, comme dans «Amérique du Nord, du Sud et centrale
(une seule zone géographique composée de trois parties) par opposition aux trois appellations «Amérique du nord»,
«Amérique centrale» et «Amérique du Sud» qui sont considérées comme trois concepts uniques distincts.
Une appellation composée de plusieurs mots et déterminants doit être interprétée comme une seule entité, qui désigne un
concept unique. Le Conseil de la radiodiffusion et des télécommunications canadiennes doit être interprété comme
constituant une seule entité et non pas deux entités (avec d'un côté le «conseil de la radiodiffusion canadienne» et de
l'autre le «conseil des télécommunications canadiennes»). De même, la Compagnie des bateaux du lac du Bourget et
du Haut-Rhône ne désigne qu'une seule entité.
Un concept unique appartenant à un système de concepts générique ne peut être subdivisé alors qu'un
concept unique appartenant à un système de concepts partitif peut être subdivisé en sous-parties (voir
5.5.2.2.2 et 5.5.2.3.2).
5.4 Caractères
5.4.1 Nature des caractères
La formation des concepts joue un rôle primordial dans l'organisation de la connaissance humaine parce qu'elle
permet d'identifier les objets et de les regrouper en unités de signification dans un domaine particulier. Afin de
catégoriser un objet en vue de former un concept, il est nécessaire d'en déterminer les propriétés (voir
l'Exemple). Les objets perçus comme partageant les mêmes propriétés sont groupés en unités. Dès qu'une
branche de la connaissance humaine considère des objets similaires, ou même un objet unique, comme une
unité de pensée ayant une signification, les propriétés d'un seul objet ou communes à un ensemble d'objets
sont isolées par abstraction sous la forme de caractères qui sont combinés en un ensemble dans la formation
d'un concept.
Si bien que les objets, dans la vie réelle, sont identifiés par leurs propriétés. Les objets sont alors ramenés par
abstraction à des concepts, et les propriétés, à des caractères constituant ces concepts. L'abstraction désigne
le processus d'identification d'un ensemble de traits communs dans un ensemble particulier d'objets et ainsi,
sur cette base, comme formant un concept autour de cet ensemble d'objets. Les caractères sont des
qualificatifs qui précisent la signification d'un concept superordonné (voir 5.5.2.1). Il convient de noter que
«caractère» est un concept linguistique qu'il convient de ne pas confondre avec le concept «propriété» en
informatique.
EXEMPLE
Vie réelle Abstraction
est ramené par
abstraction à
L’objet Un
concept
a constitue
est ramené par
Une Un
abstraction à
propriété caractère
Les relations entre ces quatre concepts peuvent être explicitées comme suit:
⎯ Chaque objet a une ou plusieurs propriétés.
⎯ Chaque propriété d'un même type est ramenée par abstraction à un caractère.
⎯ Chaque caractère fait partie d'un ou de plusieurs concepts.
⎯ Chaque concept est constitué d'un ou de plusieurs caractères.
⎯ Chaque objet est ramené par abstraction à un ou plusieurs concepts.
5.4.2 Analyse terminologique
La combinaison de caractères dans le processus de formation des concepts est un phénomène permanent.
Le concept constitué par cet ensemble de caractères est représenté par une désignation (c'est-à-dire un
terme, une appellation ou un symbole). Étant donné qu'une désignation n'est pas attribuée à un objet mais à
un concept, lui-même représentant un ou plusieurs objets, l'analyse terminologique repose sur une
représentation du concept sous la forme d'une désignation ou d'une définition. Par conséquent, la
méthodologie utilisée pour l'analyse de terminologies nécessite:
⎯ de délimiter le contexte ou le domaine;
4 © ISO 2009 – Tous droits réservés
⎯ d'identifier les propriétés assignées aux objets dans le domaine considéré;
⎯ de déterminer les propriétés qui sont isolées par abstraction en tant que caractères;
⎯ de combiner les caractères pour former un concept;
⎯ d'attribuer une désignation à ce concept.
Par ailleurs, il convient de noter que les propriétés utilisées pour énoncer des propriétés décrivant un objet et
les caractères qui constituent un concept désignent en eux-mêmes des concepts, parfois intégrés dans le
même domaine spécialisé, parfois non. Il peut être utile de commencer l'analyse par les concepts qui
correspondent à des objets concrets car il est plus facile d'en isoler par abstraction les caractères étant donné
qu'il est possible d'observer ou d'examiner physiquement certaines des propriétés desdits objets.
D'un point de vue théorique, il convient de commencer l'analyse terminologique par les objets en question et
par le domaine dans lequel ces objets sont considérés. Les propriétés doivent être attribuées aux objets
uniquement. Un terminologue commence par analyser les textes du discours faisant référence aux objets afin
de déterminer la manière dont ils sont désignés dans le langage. Grâce à l'analyse des discours, le
terminologue peut saisir les propriétés des différents référents dans les différents discours afin d'identifier les
propriétés qui sont définissables par abstraction en tant que caractères, par opposition à celles qui sont
spécifiques à un objet unique et ne peuvent donc pas être considérées comme des caractères.
EXEMPLE 1
Les objets spécifiques désignés par les représentations visuelles ci-dessous possèdent les propriétés spécifiques
suivantes:
⎯ dispositif; ⎯ dispositif; ⎯ dispositif;
⎯ de couleur ivoire; ⎯ bleu et gris; ⎯ noir et gris;
⎯ déplacé manuellement sur ⎯ déplacé manuellement sur une ⎯ déplacé manuellement sur une
une surface rigide et plane; surface rigide et plane; surface rigide et plane;
⎯ muni en dessous d'une ⎯ muni en dessous d'une boule; ⎯ muni en dessous d'une boule;
boule;
⎯ muni de deux boutons; ⎯ muni de deux boutons;
⎯ muni de trois boutons;
⎯ relié à un ordinateur par un câble ⎯ relié à un ordinateur par un câble
⎯ relié à un ordinateur par un de connexion; de connexion;
câble de connexion;
⎯ muni de rouleaux conçus pour ⎯ muni de rouleaux conçus pour
⎯ muni de rouleaux conçus détecter le mouvement de la détecter le mouvement de la
pour détecter le boule; boule;
mouvement de la boule;
⎯ la boule provoque le déplacement ⎯ la boule provoque le déplacement
⎯ la boule provoque le d'un curseur sur un écran d'un curseur sur un écran
déplacement d'un curseur d'ordinateur. d'ordinateur.
sur un écran d'ordinateur.
Si l'objet de l'Exemple 1 a pour contexte le domaine du matériel informatique, il est reconnu que cet objet
spécifique appartient à l'ensemble des objets conceptualisés en tant que «souris mécanique». Dans le cadre
de l'opération de conceptualisation, les propriétés de tous les objets faisant partie de la classe en question
sont isolées par abstraction en caractères, c'est-à-dire que ces propriétés sont converties en généralisations
s'appliquant à l'ensemble complet par opposition à l'objet individuel, comme l'illustre l'Exemple 2.
Pour faciliter cette analyse, les propriétés des objets peuvent être regroupées en catégories (parties, fonction,
composition, couleur, forme, fonctionnement, emplacement). Des catégories adaptées au domaine considéré
sont disponibles dans les travaux de référence et les encyclopédies; toutefois, il convient d'utiliser toute liste
avec flexibilité, en partant de l'hypothèse que des catégories supplémentaires seront probablement
nécessaires pour représenter de façon adéquate toutes les propriétés. Pour des raisons pratiques, il est
recommandé de commencer par les objets les plus typiques. L'identification des caractères nécessite une
connaissance du domaine auquel appartient le concept en question et requiert souvent des travaux de
recherche. Les terminologues expérimentés pour qui le concept étudié est clair et dépourvu d'ambiguïté
peuvent passer directement à l'identification des caractères.
L'exemple suivant est une analyse préliminaire du concept «souris mécanique». Les concepts traduisant des
objets sans réalité physique (par exemple: «banqueroute») doivent être analysés selon les mêmes principes.
EXEMPLE 2
Concept: abstraction à partir de l'ensemble de toutes les souris mécaniques
Désignation (terme): souris mécanique
Propriétés de l'Objet 1 Propriétés de l'Objet 2 Propriétés de l'Objet 3 Caractères
déplacée manuellement sur
déplacée manuellement déplacée manuellement déplacée manuellement sur
une surface rigide et plane
sur une surface rigide et sur une surface rigide et une surface rigide et plane
plane plane
munie en dessous d'une boule
munie en dessous d'une munie en dessous d'une munie en dessous d'une
boule boule boule
munie d'au moins un bouton
munie de trois boutons munie de deux boutons munie de trois boutons
reliée à un ordinateur par reliée à un ordinateur par reliée à un ordinateur par un reliée à un ordinateur par un
câble de connexion
un câble de connexion un câble de connexion câble de connexion
munie de rouleaux (capteurs
munie de rouleaux munie de rouleaux munie de rouleaux conçus
mécaniques) pour détecter le
conçus pour détecter le conçus pour détecter le pour détecter le mouvement
mouvement de la boule mouvement de la boule de la boule mouvement de la boule
a une couleur
couleur ivoire bleue noire
NOTE Ce caractère est hérité
d'un concept superordonné à un
niveau très élevé, par exemple
«objet physique».
Les caractères doivent servir à l'analyse des concepts, à la modélisation des systèmes de concepts et à la
formulation des définitions et, le cas échéant, il convient d'en tenir compte dans le choix et la formation des
désignations.
À noter que lors de la sélection des propriétés et des caractères, il est nécessaire de garder ces objectifs à
l'esprit car le nombre de propriétés permettant de distinguer un objet d'un autre est en réalité infini. Ainsi, par
exemple, dans le cas des souris d'ordinateur, le lieu de fabrication est un caractère dont on peut considérer
qu'il n'est pas nécessaire de tenir compte. Là encore, le terminologue expérimenté est bien placé pour
anticiper quels éléments seront probablement nécessaires.
5.4.3 Intension et extension
L'ensemble de caractères formant le concept est appelé intension du concept. L'ensemble des objets
conceptualisés sous la forme d'un concept correspond à l'extension du concept. L'intension et l'extension sont
interdépendantes. Par exemple, les caractères constituant l'intension de la «souris mécanique» déterminent
l'extension ou les objets qualifiés de souris mécaniques.
5.4.4 Caractères communs et caractères distinctifs
L'analyse terminologique ne doit pas s'arrêter à l'identification des caractères qui constituent l'intension d'un
concept. Chaque caractère du concept étudié doit être analysé par rapport aux concepts associés dans le
système de concepts. Les similarités entre concepts se traduisent par des caractères communs; les
différences singularisant un concept par rapport aux autres sont indiquées par des caractères distinctifs (voir
6 © ISO 2009 – Tous droits réservés
5.5.2.2.1, Exemple 4). Un caractère est dit distinctif en ce qui concerne deux concepts s'il permet de
distinguer ces deux concepts l'un de l'autre. Le même caractère d'un concept peut être distinctif par rapport à
un concept associé et commun par rapport à un autre concept associé. C'est l'analyse des similarités et des
différences entre concepts qui permet de définir l'ensemble unique de caractères qui qualifie précisément un
concept donné. La spécification de cette combinaison unique de caractères situe le concept dans un réseau
de concepts associés présentant des caractères similaires ou différents. Les relations entre les concepts
doivent être utilisées pour définir la structure fondamentale d'un système de concepts (voir 5.6). Le travail de
définition d'un concept nécessite de connaître les caractères utilisés pour développer le système de concepts.
5.4.5 Caractères nécessaires, suffisants et essentiels
Dans certains domaines, comme l'informatique et la logique, une distinction est faite entre les caractères
nécessaires, suffisants et essentiels, et bien que cette distinction ne soit pas pertinente dans le travail
terminologique, nous les décrivons ici à titre informatif.
Les caractères dits nécessaires sont vérifiés par tous les objets de l'extension d'un concept, c'est-à-dire qu'ils
correspondent à des propriétés que tous les objets d'une extension doivent avoir.
EXEMPLE 1
Considérons le concept «triangle rectangle ayant des côtés de 3, 4 et 5 cm». Tous les objets de l'extension de ce
concept auront nécessairement les caractères suivants (c'est-à-dire qu'ils vérifient tous les propriétés
correspondantes). Ce sont des caractères nécessaires de ce concept.
Caractères Propriétés de tous les objets de l'extension
Longueur d'un des côtés de l'angle droit: 3 cm Longueur d'un des côtés de l'angle droit: 3 cm
Longueur de l'autre côté de l'angle droit: 4 cm Longueur de l'autre côté de l'angle droit: 4 cm
Longueur de l'hypoténuse: 5 cm Longueur de l'hypoténuse: 5 cm
NOTE Pour tous les triangles rectangles:
2 2 2
a + b = c
où a, b et c désignent les longueurs des côtés du triangle. Par conséquent, la longueur d'un côté peut toujours être
calculée à partir de celles des deux autres côtés, si bien que deux caractères suffisent pour définir de façon unique le
concept. À noter que même s'il est possible de donner trois définitions différentes, le concept n'en reste pas moins
l'unique combinaison des caractères répertoriés ci-dessus.
Un caractère suffisant est un caractère pris dans un ensemble de caractères permettant de dire si un objet
spécifique appartient à l'extension d'un concept donné. Un caractère suffisant n'est pas nécessairement vrai
pour tous les objets de l'extension du concept, mais n'importe quel objet présentant les propriétés
correspondant aux caractères de cet ensemble appartient forcément à l'extension du concept.
EXEMPLE 2
Par exemple, n'importe quel objet présentant les propriétés correspondant aux caractères a donné la vie et est un être
humain appartient à l'extension du concept «femme», même si toutes les femmes n'ont pas donné la vie.
NOTE Étant donné que les caractères suffisants ne sont pas nécessairement vérifiés par tous les objets de
l'extension d'un concept, ils ne peuvent pas être utilisés pour définir ce concept.
Un caractère essentiel est un caractère pris dans l'ensemble des caractères à la fois nécessaires et suffisants
pour déterminer l'extension d'un concept.
EXEMPLE 3
À l'heure actuelle, la propriété d'être le quatrième jour de juillet est à la fois nécessaire et suffisante pour un objet
appartenant à l'extension du concept «journée de l'indépendance aux États-Unis d'Amérique».
Cette distinction entre caractères nécessaires, suffisants et essentiels est liée à l'identification de l'extension
des concepts. Le travail terminologique s'attache à l'intension et à la désignation des concepts et, dans ce
contexte, les caractères nécessaires, suffisants et essentiels ne sont pas utilisés.
5.5 Relations entre concepts
5.5.1 Types de relations entre concepts
Les concepts n'existent pas en tant qu'unités de connaissance isolées mais sont toujours en relation les uns
par rapport aux autres. Que l'on en ait formellement conscience ou non, on crée et on affine constamment les
relations entre concepts par le biais de processus mentaux. Un ensemble de concepts structurés en fonction
des relations qui les lient est considéré comme formant un système de concepts.
Pour organiser des concepts dans un système de concepts, il est nécessaire de garder en tête le domaine
d'application qui a donné naissance au concept et de tenir compte des attentes et des objectifs des
utilisateurs cibles. Le domaine doit constituer le cadre à l'intérieur duquel est établi le champ conceptuel,
c'est-à-dire l'ensemble non structuré de concepts ayant entre eux des liens thématiques.
EXEMPLE
Si la tâche était de lister et d'établir la terminologie des dispositifs de pointage du matériel informatique, l'exemple de la
«souris mécanique» ferait partie du champ conceptuel traitant des souris comme le conceptualisent les spécialistes du
domaine du matériel informatique.
NOTE Les souris ne faisant pas partie du domaine du matériel informatique, comme les souris des champs ou les
souris de laboratoire, seraient exclues.
Pour modéliser un système de concepts, les concepts du champ conceptuel correspondant doivent être
examinés et comparés. Le travail terminologique nécessite d'utiliser les relations suivantes pour constituer le
modèle d'un système de concepts:
⎯ relations hiérarchiques:
⎯ relations génériques;
⎯ relations partitives;
⎯ relations associatives.
Les systèmes de concepts sont représentés graphiquement au moyen de schémas conceptuels.
5.5.2 Relations hiérarchiques
5.5.2.1 Types de relations hiérarchiques
Dans une relation hiérarchique, les concepts sont organisés en niveaux de concepts superordonnés et
subordonnés. Pour qu'il y ait hiérarchie, il faut qu'il y ait au moins un concept subordonné sous un concept
superordonné. Les concepts superordonnés peuvent être subdivisés en fonction de plusieurs critères de
subdivision (ils peuvent comporter plusieurs dimensions); dans ce cas, le système de concepts qui en résulte
est dit multidimensionnel. Les concepts subordonnés situés au même niveau et résultant de l'application du
même critère de subdivision sont appelés concepts coordonnés. Les concepts sont superordonnés,
subordonnés ou coordonnés, non pas de façon indépendante, mais toujours les uns par rapport aux autres
dans une hiérarchie.
Dans la présente Norme internationale, deux types de relations hiérarchiques sont prises en compte:
⎯ relations génériques;
⎯ relations partitives.
8 © ISO 2009 – Tous droits réservés
5.5.2.2 Relations génériques
5.5.2.2.1 Relations génériques et concepts généraux
Comme nous l'avons vu en 5.4.2, les caractères associés à un concept constituent son intension, et tous les
objets inclus dans l'ensemble d'objets associés au concept constituent son extension. Une relation générique
existe entre deux concepts lorsque l'intension du concept subordonné inclut l'intension du concept
superordonné plus au moins un caractère distinctif supplémentaire. Par exemple, l'intension de «souris
mécanique» inclut celle de «souris d'ordinateur» plus le caractère distinctif munie de rouleaux (capteurs
mécaniques) pour détecter mouvement de la boule (voir l'Exemple 2).
Dans une relation générique, la relation d'inclusion entre les extensions de deux concepts est inversée; c'est-
à-dire que l'extension du concept superordonné inclut celle du concept subordonné. Par exemple, l'extension
de «souris d'ordinateur» inclut celle de «souris mécanique», étant donné que certains des objets classés en
tant que souris d'ordinateur peuvent également être qualifiés de souris mécaniques.
Le concept superordonné dans une relation générique est appelé concept générique et le concept
subordonné, concept spécifique.
La relation générique est caractérisée par le fait qu'elle répond au principe d'héritage, c'est-à-dire que si le
concept B (ex.: «souris mécanique») est un concept spécifique du concept générique A (ex.: «souris
d'ordinateur»), alors le concept B hérite de tous les caractères du concept A. Le principe d'héritage permet de
tester et de valider la relation générique (voir l'Exemple 3). En développant la métaphore introduite par le
concept d'héritage, on appelle souvent un concept générique un parent, un concept spécifique est quant à lui
un enfant, et les concepts coordonnés sont des jumeaux.
Au moment de documenter des caractères associés à des concepts, au lieu de lister les caractères hérités de
façon redondante pour tous les concepts subordonnés, on ne doit les répertorier qu'avec le concept
générique. En dessous du concept spécifique, il est possible de lister uniquement le ou les caractères
supplémentaires distinguant le concept spécifique de son concept générique et/ou des concepts coordonnés
de même niveau. Les caractères hérités peuvent être obtenus au niveau supérieur dans le système de
concepts.
EXEMPLE 1
Dans le schéma conceptuel ci-dessous, «souris d'ordinateur» est u
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