E37.05 - Thermophysical Properties

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Coefficients of linear thermal expansion are required for design purposes and are used, for example, to determine dimensional behavior of structures subject to temperature changes, or thermal stresses that can occur and cause failure of a solid artifact composed of different materials when it is subjected to a temperature excursion.  
5.2 This test method is a reliable method of determining the linear thermal expansion of solid materials.  
5.3 For accurate determinations of thermal expansion, it is absolutely necessary that the dilatometer be calibrated by using a reference material that has a known and reproducible thermal expansion. The appendix contains information relating to reference materials in current general use.  
5.4 The measurement of thermal expansion involves two parameters: change of length and change of temperature, both of them equally important. Neglecting proper and accurate temperature measurement will inevitably result in increased uncertainties in the final data.  
5.5 The test method can be used for research, development, specification acceptance, quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA).
SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the determination of the linear thermal expansion of rigid solid materials using push-rod dilatometers. This method is applicable over any practical temperature range where a device can be constructed to satisfy the performance requirements set forth in this standard.
Note 1: Initially, this method was developed for vitreous silica dilatometers operating over a temperature range of –180 °C to 900 °C. The concepts and principles have been amply documented in the literature to be equally applicable for operating at higher temperatures. The precision and bias of these systems is believed to be of the same order as that for silica systems up to 900 °C. However, their precision and bias have not yet been established over the relevant total range of temperature due to the lack of well-characterized reference materials and the need for interlaboratory comparisons.  
1.2 For this purpose, a rigid solid is defined as a material that, at test temperature and under the stresses imposed by instrumentation, has a negligible creep or elastic strain rate, or both, thus insignificantly affecting the precision of thermal-length change measurements. This includes, as examples, metals, ceramics, refractories, glasses, rocks and minerals, graphites, plastics, cements, cured mortars, woods, and a variety of composites.  
1.3 The precision of this comparative test method is higher than that of other push-rod dilatometry techniques (for example, Test Method D696) and thermomechanical analysis (for example, Test Method E831) but is significantly lower than that of absolute methods such as interferometry (for example, Test Method E289). It is generally applicable to materials having absolute linear expansion coefficients exceeding 0.5 μm/(m·°C) for a 1000 °C range, and under special circumstances can be used for lower expansion materials when special precautions are used to ensure that the produced expansion of the specimen falls within the capabilities of the measuring system. In such cases, a sufficiently long specimen was found to meet the specification.  
1.4 Units—The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Or...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Thermal diffusivity is an important property, required for such purposes under transient heat flow conditions, such as design applications, determination of safe operating temperature, process control, and quality assurance.  
5.2 The flash method is used to measure values of thermal diffusivity, α, of a wide range of solid materials. It is particularly advantageous because of simple specimen geometry, small specimen size requirements, rapidity of measurement and ease of handling.  
5.3 Under certain strict conditions, specific heat capacity of a homogeneous isotropic opaque solid sample can be determined when the method is used in a quantitative fashion (see Test Method E1461, Appendix 1).  
5.4 Thermal diffusivity results, together with related values of specific heat capacity (Cp) and density (ρ) values, can be used in many cases to derive thermal conductivity (λ), according to the relationship:
SCOPE
1.1 This practice covers practical details associated with the determination of the thermal diffusivity of primarily homogeneous isotropic solid materials. Thermal diffusivity values ranging from 10–7 to 10-3 m2/s are readily measurable by this from about 75 K to 2800 K.  
1.2 This practice is adjunct to Test Method E1461.  
1.3 This practice is applicable to the measurements performed on materials opaque to the spectrum of the energy pulse, but with special precautions can be used on fully or partially transparent materials.  
1.4 This practice is intended to allow a wide variety of apparatus designs. It is not practical in a document of this type to establish details of construction and procedures to cover all contingencies that might offer difficulties to a person without pertinent technical knowledge, or to stop or restrict research and development for improvements in the basic technique. This practice provides guidelines for the construction principles, preferred embodiments and operating parameters for this type of instruments.  
1.5 This practice is applicable to the measurements performed on essentially fully dense materials; however, in some cases it has shown to produce acceptable results when used with porous specimens. Since the magnitude of porosity, pore shapes, and parameters of pore distribution influence the behavior of the thermal diffusivity, extreme caution must be exercised when analyzing data. Special caution is advised when other properties, such as thermal conductivity, are derived from thermal diffusivity obtained by this method.  
1.6 The flash can be considered an absolute (or primary) method of measurement, since no reference materials are required. It is advisable to use only reference materials to verify the performance of the instrument used.  
1.7 This method is applicable only for homogeneous solid materials, in the strictest sense; however, in some cases it has been shown to produce data found to be useful in certain applications:  
1.7.1 Testing of Composite Materials—When substantial non-homogeneity and anisotropy is present in a material, the thermal diffusivity data obtained with this method may be substantially in error. Nevertheless, such data, while usually lacking absolute accuracy, may be useful in comparing materials of similar structure. Extreme caution must be exercised when related properties, such as thermal conductivity, are derived, as composite materials, for example, may have heat flow patterns substantially different than uniaxial. In cases where the particle size of the composite phases is small compared to the specimen thickness (on the order of 1 to 25 % of thickness) and where the transient thermal response of the specimen appears homogenous when compared to the model, this method can produce accurate results for composite materials. Anisotropic materials can be measured by various techniques, as long as the directional thermal diffusivities (two dimensional or three dimensional) are mutually orthogonal and the measureme...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Thermal diffusivity is an important transient thermal property, required for such purposes such as design applications, determination of safe operating temperature, process control, and quality assurance.  
5.2 The flash method is used to measure values of thermal diffusivity, α, of a wide range of solid materials. It is particularly advantageous because of simple specimen geometry, small specimen size requirements, rapidity of measurement and ease of handling.  
5.3 Under certain strict conditions, specific heat capacity of a homogeneous isotropic opaque solid specimen can be determined when the method is used in a quantitative fashion (see Appendix X2).  
5.4 Thermal diffusivity results, together with related values of specific heat capacity (Cp) and density (ρ) values, can be used in many cases to derive thermal conductivity (λ), according to the relationship:
SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the determination of the thermal diffusivity of primarily homogeneous isotropic solid materials. Thermal diffusivity values ranging from 0.1 to 1000 (mm)2 s-1 are measurable by this test method from about 75 to 2800 K.  
1.2 Practice E2585 is adjunct to this test method and contains detailed information regarding the use of the flash method. The two documents are complementing each other.  
1.3 This test method is a more detailed form of Test Method C714, having applicability to much wider ranges of materials, applications, and temperatures, with improved accuracy of measurements.  
1.4 This test method is intended to allow a wide variety of apparatus designs. It is not practical in a test method of this type to establish details of construction and procedures to cover all contingencies that might offer difficulties to a person without pertinent technical knowledge, or to restrict research and development for improvements in the basic technique.  
1.5 This test method is applicable to the measurements performed on essentially fully dense (preferably, but low porosity would be acceptable), homogeneous, and isotropic solid materials that are opaque to the applied energy pulse. Experience shows that some deviation from these strict guidelines can be accommodated with care and proper experimental design, substantially broadening the usefulness of the method.  
1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.7 For systems employing lasers as power sources, it is imperative that the safety requirement be fully met.  
1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.9 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 The comparative method of measurement of thermal conductivity is especially useful for engineering materials including ceramics, polymers, metals and alloys, refractories, carbons, and graphites including combinations and other composite forms of each.  
5.2 Proper design of a guarded-longitudinal system is difficult and it is not practical in a method of this type to try to establish details of construction and procedures to cover all contingencies that might offer difficulties to a person without technical knowledge concerning theory of heat flow, temperature measurements, and general testing practices. Standardization of this test method is not intended to restrict in any way the future development by research workers of new or methods or improved procedures. However, new or improved techniques must be thoroughly tested. Requirements for qualifying an apparatus are outlined in Section 10.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method describes a steady state technique for the determination of the thermal conductivity, λ, of homogeneous-opaque solids (see Notes 1 and 2). This test method is applicable to materials with effective thermal conductivities in the range 0.2 m·K) over the temperature range between 90 K and 1300 K. It can be used outside these ranges with decreased accuracy.  
Note 1: For purposes of this technique, a system is homogeneous if the apparent thermal conductivity of the specimen, λA, does not vary with changes of thickness or cross-sectional area by more than ±5 %. For composites or heterogeneous systems consisting of slabs or plates bonded together, the specimen should be more than 20 units wide and 20 units thick, respectively, where a unit is the thickness of the thickest slab or plate, so that diameter or length changes of one-half unit will affect the apparent λA by less than ±5 %. For systems that are non-opaque or partially transparent in the infrared, the combined error due to inhomogeneity and photon transmission should be less than ±5 %. Measurements on highly transparent solids must be accompanied with infrared absorption coefficient information, or the results must be reported as apparent thermal conductivity, λA.  
Note 2: This test method may also be used to evaluate the contact thermal conductance/resistance of materials and composites.  
1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.4 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This practice is useful for testing materials in general, including composites and multi-layered types.  
5.2 The practice is especially useful for materials which undergo significant reactions or local dimensional changes, or both, during exposure to elevated temperatures and thus are difficult to evaluate using existing standard test methods such as Test Method C1113.  
5.3 Performing the test over multiple heating/cooling cycles allows an assessment of the influence of reactions, phase changes, and mass transfer of reactions gases (for example, steam) on the thermal performance.
Note 3: This practice has been found to be especially applicable to testing fire resistive materials.
SCOPE
1.1 This practice describes a technique for the determination of the apparent thermal conductivity, λa, and thermal diffusivity, αa, of materials. It is for solid materials with apparent thermal conductivities in the approximate range 0.02 a  
Note 1: While the practice should also be applicable to determining the thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of non-reactive materials, it has been found specifically useful in testing fire resistive materials that are both reactive and undergo significant dimensional changes during a high temperature exposure.  
1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.4 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This test method describes a procedure to measure and compare the thermal resistance properties of specimens (less than 25 mm in thickness) under controlled conditions.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method describes a steady-state technique for the determination of the resistance to thermal transmission (thermal resistance) of materials having a thickness of less than 25 mm. Thermal conductivity may be determined for homogeneous opaque solid specimens (see Note 1). This test method is particularly useful for homogeneous, multilayer, and composite specimens having a thermal resistance in the range from 10 (cm)2·K·W-1 to 400 (cm)2·K·W-1, which may be obtained from materials with an approximate thermal conductivity range 0.1 W·m-1·K-1 to 30 W·m-1·K-1 over the approximate temperature range from 150 K to 600 K. It can be used outside these ranges with reduced accuracy for thicker specimens and for thermal conductivity values up to 60 W·m-1·K-1.
Note 1: A body is considered homogeneous when the property to be measured is found to be independent of specimen dimensions.  
1.2 This test method is similar in concept to Test Method C518, but is modified to accommodate smaller test specimens, having a higher thermal conductance. In addition, significant attention has been paid to ensure that the thermal resistance of contacting surfaces is minimized and reproducible.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Coefficients of linear expansion are required for design purposes and are used particularly to determine thermal stresses that can occur when a solid artifact composed of different materials may fail when it is subjected to a temperature excursion(s).  
5.2 Many new composites are being produced that have very low thermal expansion coefficients for use in applications where very precise and critical alignment of components is necessary. Push rod dilatometry such as Test Methods D696 and E228, and thermomechanical analysis methods such as Test Method E831 are not sufficiently precise for reliable measurements either on such material and systems, or on very short specimens of materials having higher coefficients.  
5.3 The precision of the absolute method allows for its use to:  
5.3.1 Measure very small changes in length;  
5.3.2 Develop reference materials and transfer standards for calibration of other less precise techniques;  
5.3.3 Measure and compare precisely the differences in coefficient of “matched” materials.  
5.4 The precise measurement of thermal expansion involves two parameters; change of length and change of temperature. Since precise measurements of the first parameter can be made by this test method, it is essential that great attention is also paid to the second, in order to ensure that calculated expansion coefficients are based on the required temperature difference. Thus in order to ensure the necessary uniformity in temperature of the specimen, it is essential that the uniform temperature zone of the surrounding furnace or environmental chamber shall be made significantly longer than the combined length of specimen and mirrors.  
5.5 This test method contains essential details of the design principles, specimen configurations, and procedures to provide precise values of thermal expansion. It is not practical in a method of this type to try to establish specific details of design, construction, and procedures to cover all contingenci...
SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the determination of linear thermal expansion of rigid solids using either a Michelson or Fizeau interferometer.  
1.2 For this purpose, a rigid solid is defined as a material which, at test temperature and under the stresses imposed by instrumentation, has a negligible creep, insofar as significantly affecting the precision of thermal length change measurements.  
1.3 It is recognized that many rigid solids require detailed preconditioning and specific thermal test schedules for correct evaluation of linear thermal expansion behavior for certain material applications. Since a general method of test cannot cover all specific requirements, details of this nature should be discussed in the particular material specifications.  
1.4 This test method is applicable to the approximate temperature range −150°C to 700°C. The temperature range may be extended depending on the instrumentation and calibration materials used.  
1.5 The precision of measurement of this absolute method (better than ±40 nm/(m·K)) is significantly higher than that of comparative methods such as push rod dilatometry (for example, Test Methods D696 and E228) and thermomechanical analysis (for example, Test Method E831) techniques. It is applicable to materials having low and either positive or negative coefficients of expansion (below 5 μm/(m·K)) and where only very limited lengths or thickness of other higher expansion coefficient materials are available.  
1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.8 This international standard was developed in accord...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Coefficients of linear thermal expansion are required for design purposes and are used, for example, to determine dimensional behavior of structures subject to temperature changes, or thermal stresses that can occur and cause failure of a solid artifact composed of different materials when it is subjected to a temperature excursion.  
5.2 This test method is a reliable method of determining the linear thermal expansion of solid materials.  
5.3 For accurate determinations of thermal expansion, it is absolutely necessary that the dilatometer be calibrated by using a reference material that has a known and reproducible thermal expansion. The appendix contains information relating to reference materials in current general use.  
5.4 The measurement of thermal expansion involves two parameters: change of length and change of temperature, both of them equally important. Neglecting proper and accurate temperature measurement will inevitably result in increased uncertainties in the final data.  
5.5 The test method can be used for research, development, specification acceptance, quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA).
SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the determination of the linear thermal expansion of rigid solid materials using push-rod dilatometers. This method is applicable over any practical temperature range where a device can be constructed to satisfy the performance requirements set forth in this standard.
Note 1: Initially, this method was developed for vitreous silica dilatometers operating over a temperature range of –180°C to 900°C. The concepts and principles have been amply documented in the literature to be equally applicable for operating at higher temperatures. The precision and bias of these systems is believed to be of the same order as that for silica systems up to 900°C. However, their precision and bias have not yet been established over the relevant total range of temperature due to the lack of well-characterized reference materials and the need for interlaboratory comparisons.  
1.2 For this purpose, a rigid solid is defined as a material that, at test temperature and under the stresses imposed by instrumentation, has a negligible creep or elastic strain rate, or both, thus insignificantly affecting the precision of thermal-length change measurements. This includes, as examples, metals, ceramics, refractories, glasses, rocks and minerals, graphites, plastics, cements, cured mortars, woods, and a variety of composites.  
1.3 The precision of this comparative test method is higher than that of other push-rod dilatometry techniques (for example, Test Method D696) and thermomechanical analysis (for example, Test Method E831) but is significantly lower than that of absolute methods such as interferometry (for example, Test Method E289). It is generally applicable to materials having absolute linear expansion coefficients exceeding 0.5 μm/(m·°C) for a 1000°C range, and under special circumstances can be used for lower expansion materials when special precautions are used to ensure that the produced expansion of the specimen falls within the capabilities of the measuring system. In such cases, a sufficiently long specimen was found to meet the specification.  
1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barri...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Coefficients of linear thermal expansion are required for design purposes and are used, for example, to determine dimensional behavior of structures subject to temperature changes, or thermal stresses that can occur and cause failure of a solid artifact composed of different materials when it is subjected to a temperature excursion.  
5.2 This test method is a reliable method of determining the linear thermal expansion of solid materials.  
5.3 For accurate determinations of thermal expansion, it is absolutely necessary that the dilatometer be calibrated by using a reference material that has a known and reproducible thermal expansion. The appendix contains information relating to reference materials in current general use.  
5.4 The measurement of thermal expansion involves two parameters: change of length and change of temperature, both of them equally important. Neglecting proper and accurate temperature measurement will inevitably result in increased uncertainties in the final data.  
5.5 The test method can be used for research, development, specification acceptance, quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA).
SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the determination of the linear thermal expansion of rigid solid materials using push-rod dilatometers. This method is applicable over any practical temperature range where a device can be constructed to satisfy the performance requirements set forth in this standard.
Note 1: Initially, this method was developed for vitreous silica dilatometers operating over a temperature range of –180 to 900°C. The concepts and principles have been amply documented in the literature to be equally applicable for operating at higher temperatures. The precision and bias of these systems is believed to be of the same order as that for silica systems up to 900°C. However, their precision and bias have not yet been established over the relevant total range of temperature due to the lack of well-characterized reference materials and the need for interlaboratory comparisons.  
1.2 For this purpose, a rigid solid is defined as a material that, at test temperature and under the stresses imposed by instrumentation, has a negligible creep or elastic strain rate, or both, thus insignificantly affecting the precision of thermal-length change measurements. This includes, as examples, metals, ceramics, refractories, glasses, rocks and minerals, graphites, plastics, cements, cured mortars, woods, and a variety of composites.  
1.3 The precision of this comparative test method is higher than that of other push-rod dilatometry techniques (for example, Test Method D696) and thermomechanical analysis (for example, Test Method E831) but is significantly lower than that of absolute methods such as interferometry (for example, Test Method E289). It is generally applicable to materials having absolute linear expansion coefficients exceeding 0.5 μm/(m·°C) for a 1000°C range, and under special circumstances can be used for lower expansion materials when special precautions are used to ensure that the produced expansion of the specimen falls within the capabilities of the measuring system. In such cases, a sufficiently long specimen was found to meet the specification.  
1.4 Computer- or electronic-based instrumentation, techniques, and data analysis systems may be used in conjunction with this test method, as long as it is established that such a system strictly adheres to the principles and computational schemes set forth in this method. Users of the test method are expressly advised that all such instruments or techniques may not be equivalent and may omit or deviate from the methodology described hereunder. It is the responsibility of the user to determine the necessary equivalency prior to use.  
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.6 There is no ISO method equivalent to t...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Coefficients of linear expansion are required for design purposes and are used particularly to determine thermal stresses that can occur when a solid artifact composed of different materials may fail when it is subjected to a temperature excursion(s).  
5.2 Many new composites are being produced that have very low thermal expansion coefficients for use in applications where very precise and critical alignment of components is necessary. Push rod dilatometry such as Test Methods D696, E228, and TMA methods such as Test Methods E831 are not sufficiently precise for reliable measurements either on such material and systems, or on very short specimens of materials having higher coefficients.  
5.3 The precision of the absolute method allows for its use to:  
5.3.1 Measure very small changes in length;  
5.3.2 Develop reference materials and transfer standards for calibration of other less precise techniques;  
5.3.3 Measure and compare precisely the differences in coefficient of “matched” materials.  
5.4 The precise measurement of thermal expansion involves two parameters; change of length and change of temperature. Since precise measurements of the first parameter can be made by this test method, it is essential that great attention is also paid to the second, in order to ensure that calculated expansion coefficients are based on the required temperature difference. Thus in order to ensure the necessary uniformity in temperature of the specimen, it is essential that the uniform temperature zone of the surrounding furnace or environmental chamber shall be made significantly longer than the combined length of specimen and mirrors.  
5.5 This test method contains essential details of the design principles, specimen configurations, and procedures to provide precise values of thermal expansion. It is not practical in a method of this type to try to establish specific details of design, construction, and procedures to cover all contingencies that might present di...
SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the determination of linear thermal expansion of rigid solids using either a Michelson or Fizeau interferometer.  
1.2 For this purpose, a rigid solid is defined as a material which, at test temperature and under the stresses imposed by instrumentation, has a negligible creep, insofar as significantly affecting the precision of thermal length change measurements.  
1.3 It is recognized that many rigid solids require detailed preconditioning and specific thermal test schedules for correct evaluation of linear thermal expansion behavior for certain material applications. Since a general method of test cannot cover all specific requirements, details of this nature should be discussed in the particular material specifications.  
1.4 This test method is applicable to the approximate temperature range −150 to 700°C. The temperature range may be extended depending on the instrumentation and calibration materials used.  
1.5 The precision of measurement of this absolute method (better than ±40 nm/(m·K)) is significantly higher than that of comparative methods such as push rod dilatometry (for example, Test Methods D696 and E228) and thermomechanical analysis (for example, Test Method E831) techniques. It is applicable to materials having low and either positive or negative coefficients of expansion (below 5 μm/(m·K)) and where only very limited lengths or thickness of other higher expansion coefficient materials are available.  
1.6 Computer or electronic based instrumentation, techniques and data analysis systems equivalent to this test method can be used. Users of the test method are expressly advised that all such instruments or techniques may not be equivalent. It is the responsibility of the user to determine the necessary equivalency prior to use.  
1.7 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.8 This sta...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This test method is designed to measure and compare thermal properties of materials under controlled conditions and their ability to maintain required thermal conductance levels.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers a steady-state technique for the determination of the resistance to thermal transmission (thermal resistance) of materials of thicknesses less than 25 mm. For homogeneous opaque solid specimens of a representative thickness, thermal conductivity can be determined (see Note 1). This test method is useful for specimens having a thermal resistance in the range from 10 to 400 × 10-4 m 2·K·W-1, which can be obtained from materials of thermal conductivity in the approximate range from 0.1 to 30 W·m-1·K-1 over the approximate temperature range from 150 to 600 K. It can be used outside these ranges with reduced accuracy for thicker specimens and for thermal conductivity values up to 60 W·m-1·K -1.
Note 1: A body is considered homogeneous when the property to be measured is found to be independent of specimen dimensions.  
1.2 This test method is similar in concept to Test Method C518, but is modified to accommodate smaller test specimens, having a higher thermal conductance. In addition, significant attention has been paid to ensure that the thermal resistance of contacting surfaces is minimized and reproducible.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The additional values are mathematical conversions to inch-pound units that are provided for information only and are not considered standard.  
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Thermal diffusivity is an important property, required for such purposes under transient heat flow conditions, such as design applications, determination of safe operating temperature, process control, and quality assurance.  
5.2 The flash method is used to measure values of thermal diffusivity, α, of a wide range of solid materials. It is particularly advantageous because of simple specimen geometry, small specimen size requirements, rapidity of measurement and ease of handling.  
5.3 Under certain strict conditions, specific heat capacity of a homogeneous isotropic opaque solid sample can be determined when the method is used in a quantitative fashion (see Test Method E1461, Appendix 1).  
5.4 Thermal diffusivity results, together with related values of specific heat capacity (Cp) and density (ρ) values, can be used in many cases to derive thermal conductivity (λ), according to the relationship:
SCOPE
1.1 This practice covers practical details associated with the determination of the thermal diffusivity of primarily homogeneous isotropic solid materials. Thermal diffusivity values ranging from 10-7 to 10-3 m2/s are readily measurable by this from about 75 to 2800 K.  
1.2 This practice is adjunct to Test Method E1461.  
1.3 This practice is applicable to the measurements performed on materials opaque to the spectrum of the energy pulse, but with special precautions can be used on fully or partially transparent materials.  
1.4 This practice is intended to allow a wide variety of apparatus designs. It is not practical in a document of this type to establish details of construction and procedures to cover all contingencies that might offer difficulties to a person without pertinent technical knowledge, or to stop or restrict research and development for improvements in the basic technique. This practice provides guidelines for the construction principles, preferred embodiments and operating parameters for this type of instruments.  
1.5 This practice is applicable to the measurements performed on essentially fully dense materials; however, in some cases it has shown to produce acceptable results when used with porous specimens. Since the magnitude of porosity, pore shapes, and parameters of pore distribution influence the behavior of the thermal diffusivity, extreme caution must be exercised when analyzing data. Special caution is advised when other properties, such as thermal conductivity, are derived from thermal diffusivity obtained by this method.  
1.6 The flash can be considered an absolute (or primary) method of measurement, since no reference materials are required. It is advisable to use only reference materials to verify the performance of the instrument used.  
1.7 This method is applicable only for homogeneous solid materials, in the strictest sense; however, in some cases it has been shown to produce data found to be useful in certain applications:  
1.7.1 Testing of Composite Materials—When substantial non-homogeneity and anisotropy is present in a material, the thermal diffusivity data obtained with this method may be substantially in error. Nevertheless, such data, while usually lacking absolute accuracy, may be useful in comparing materials of similar structure. Extreme caution must be exercised when related properties, such as thermal conductivity, are derived, as composite materials, for example, may have heat flow patterns substantially different than uniaxial. In cases where the particle size of the composite phases is small compared to the specimen thickness (on the order of 1 to 25 % of thickness) and where the transient thermal response of the specimen appears homogenous when compared to the model, this method can produce accurate results for composite materials. Anisotropic materials can be measured by various techniques, as long as the directional thermal diffusivities (two dimensional or three dimensional) are mutually orthogonal and the measurement...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 This practice is useful for testing materials in general, including composites and layered types.  
5.2 The practice is especially useful for materials which undergo significant reactions or local dimensional changes, or both, during exposure to elevated temperatures and thus are difficult to evaluate using existing standard test methods such as Test Method C1113.  
5.3 Performing the test over multiple heating/cooling cycles allows an assessment of the influence of reactions, phase changes, and mass transfer of reactions gases (for example, steam) on the thermal performance.Note 3—This method has been found to be especially applicable to testing fire resistive materials.
SCOPE
1.1 This practice describes a technique for the determination of the apparent thermal conductivity, λa, of materials. It is for solid materials with apparent thermal conductivities in the approximate range 0.02 a Note 1—While the practice should also be applicable to determining the thermal conductivity of non-reactive materials, it has been found specifically useful in testing fire resistive materials that are both reactive and undergo significant dimensional changes during a high temperature exposure.  
1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 The comparative method of measurement of thermal conductivity is especially useful for engineering materials including ceramics, polymers, metals and alloys, refractories, carbons, and graphites including combinations and other composite forms of each.  
5.2 Proper design of a guarded-longitudinal system is difficult and it is not practical in a method of this type to try to establish details of construction and procedures to cover all contingencies that might offer difficulties to a person without technical knowledge concerning theory of heat flow, temperature measurements, and general testing practices. Standardization of this test method is not intended to restrict in any way the future development by research workers of new or methods or improved procedures. However, new or improved techniques must be thoroughly tested. Requirements for qualifying an apparatus are outlined in Section 10.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method describes a steady state technique for the determination of the thermal conductivity, λ, of homogeneous-opaque solids (see Notes 1 and 2). This test method is applicable to materials with effective thermal conductivities in the range 0.2 m·K) over the temperature range between 90 and 1300 K. It can be used outside these ranges with decreased accuracy. Note 1—For purposes of this technique, a system is homogeneous if the apparent thermal conductivity of the specimen, λ A, does not vary with changes of thickness or cross-sectional area by more than ±5 %. For composites or heterogeneous systems consisting of slabs or plates bonded together, the specimen should be more than 20 units wide and 20 units thick, respectively, where a unit is the thickness of the thickest slab or plate, so that diameter or length changes of one-half unit will affect the apparent λA   by less than ±5 %. For systems that are non-opaque or partially transparent in the infrared, the combined error due to inhomogeneity and photon transmission should be less than ±5 %. Measurements on highly transparent solids must be accompanied with infrared absorption coefficient information, or the results must be reported as apparent thermal conductivity, λA.
Note 2—This test method may also be used to evaluate the contact thermal conductance/resistance of materials.  
1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Thermal diffusivity is an important transient thermal property, required for such purposes such as design applications, determination of safe operating temperature, process control, and quality assurance.  
5.2 The flash method is used to measure values of thermal diffusivity, α, of a wide range of solid materials. It is particularly advantageous because of simple specimen geometry, small specimen size requirements, rapidity of measurement and ease of handling.  
5.3 Under certain strict conditions, specific heat capacity of a homogeneous isotropic opaque solid specimen can be determined when the method is used in a quantitative fashion (see Appendix X2).  
5.4 Thermal diffusivity results, together with related values of specific heat capacity (Cp) and density (ρ) values, can be used in many cases to derive thermal conductivity (λ), according to the relationship:
SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the determination of the thermal diffusivity of primarily homogeneous isotropic solid materials. Thermal diffusivity values ranging from 0.1 to 1000 (mm)2 s-1 are measurable by this test method from about 75 to 2800 K.  
1.2 Practice E2585 is adjunct to this test method and contains detailed information regarding the use of the flash method. The two documents are complementing each other.  
1.3 This test method is a more detailed form of Test Method C714, having applicability to much wider ranges of materials, applications, and temperatures, with improved accuracy of measurements.  
1.4 This test method is intended to allow a wide variety of apparatus designs. It is not practical in a test method of this type to establish details of construction and procedures to cover all contingencies that might offer difficulties to a person without pertinent technical knowledge, or to restrict research and development for improvements in the basic technique.  
1.5 This test method is applicable to the measurements performed on essentially fully dense (preferably, but low porosity would be acceptable), homogeneous, and isotropic solid materials that are opaque to the applied energy pulse. Experience shows that some deviation from these strict guidelines can be accommodated with care and proper experimental design, substantially broadening the usefulness of the method.  
1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.  
1.7 For systems employing lasers as power sources, it is imperative that the safety requirement be fully met.  
1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
Thermal diffusivity is an important property, required for such purposes under transient heat flow conditions, such as design applications, determination of safe operating temperature, process control, and quality assurance.
The flash method is used to measure values of thermal diffusivity, α, of a wide range of solid materials. It is particularly advantageous because of simple specimen geometry, small specimen size requirements, rapidity of measurement and ease of handling..
Under certain strict conditions, specific heat capacity of a homogeneous isotropic opaque solid specimen can be determined when the method is used in a quantitative fashion (see Appendix X2).
Thermal diffusivity results, together with related values of specific heat capacity (Cp) and density (ρ) values, can be used in many cases to derive thermal conductivity (λ), according to the relationship:
SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the determination of the thermal diffusivity of primarily homogeneous isotropic solid materials. Thermal diffusivity values ranging from 10-7 to 10-3 m2·s-1 are measurable by this test method from about 75 to 2800 K.
1.2 Practice E2585 is adjunct to this Test Method and contains detailed information regarding the use of the flash method. The two documents are complementing each other.
1.3 This test method is a more detailed form of Test Method C714, having applicability to much wider ranges of materials, applications, and temperatures, with improved accuracy of measurements.
1.4 This test method is intended to allow a wide variety of apparatus designs. It is not practical in a test method of this type to establish details of construction and procedures to cover all contingencies that might offer difficulties to a person without pertinent technical knowledge, or to stop or restrict research and development for improvements in the basic technique.
1.5 This test method is applicable to the measurements performed on essentially fully dense (preferably, but low porosity would be acceptable), homogeneeous, and isotropic solid materials that are opaque to the applied energy pulse. Experience has shown, however, that some deviation from these strict guidelines can be accommodated with care and proper experimental design, substantially broadening the usefulness of the method.
1.6 This test method can be considered an absolute (or primary) method of measurement, since no reference standards are required. It is advisable to use reference materials to verify the performance of the instrument used.
1.7 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.8 For systems employing lasers as power sources, it is imperative that the safety requirement be fully met.
1.9 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This test method is designed to measure and compare thermal properties of materials under controlled conditions and their ability to maintain required thermal conductance levels.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers a steady-state technique for the determination of the resistance to thermal transmission (thermal resistance) of materials of thicknesses less than 25 mm. For homogeneous opaque solid specimens of a representative thickness, thermal conductivity can be determined (see Note 1). This test method is useful for specimens having a thermal resistance in the range from 10 to 400 × 10-4 m2·K·W-1, which can be obtained from materials of thermal conductivity in the approximate range from 0.1 to 30 W·m-1·K-1 over the approximate temperature range from 150 to 600 K. It can be used outside these ranges with reduced accuracy for thicker specimens and for thermal conductivity values up to 60 W·m-1·K-1.
Note 1—A body is considered homogeneous when the property to be measured is found to be independent of specimen dimensions.
1.2 This test method is similar in concept to Test Method C518, but is modified to accommodate smaller test specimens, having a higher thermal conductance. In addition, significant attention has been paid to ensure that the thermal resistance of contacting surfaces is minimized and reproducible.
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The additional values are mathematical conversions to inch-pound units that are provided for information only and are not considered standard.
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the determination of the linear thermal expansion of rigid solid materials using push-rod dilatometers. This method is applicable over any practical temperature range where a device can be constructed to satisfy the performance requirements set forth in this standard.Note 1
Initially, this method was developed for vitreous silica dilatometers operating over a temperature range of -180 to 900°C. The concepts and principles have been amply documented in the literature to be equally applicable for operating at higher temperatures. The precision and bias of these systems is believed to be of the same order as that for silica systems up to 900°C. However, their precision and bias have not yet been established over the relevant total range of temperature due to the lack of well-characterized reference materials and the need for interlaboratory comparisons.
1.2 For this purpose, a rigid solid is defined as a material that, at test temperature and under the stresses imposed by instrumentation, has a negligible creep or elastic strain rate, or both, thus insignificantly affecting the precision of thermal-length change measurements. This includes, as examples, metals, ceramics, refractories, glasses, rocks and minerals, graphites, plastics, cements, cured mortars, woods, and a variety of composites.
1.3 The precision of this comparative test method is higher than that of other push-rod dilatometry techniques (for example, Test Method D 696) and thermomechanical analysis (for example, Test Method E 831) but is significantly lower than that of absolute methods such as interferometry (for example, Test Method E 289). It is generally applicable to materials having absolute linear expansion coefficients exceeding 0.5 m/(mC) for a 1000°C range, and under special circumstances can be used for lower expansion materials when special precautions are used to ensure that the produced expansion of the specimen falls within the capabilities of the measuring system. In such cases, a sufficiently long specimen was found to meet the specification.
1.4 Computer- or electronic-based instrumentation, techniques, and data analysis systems may be used in conjunction with this test method, as long as it is established that such a system strictly adheres to the principles and computational schemes set forth in this method. Users of the test method are expressly advised that all such instruments or techniques may not be equivalent and may omit or deviate from the methodology described hereunder. It is the responsibility of the user to determine the necessary equivalency prior to use.
1.5 SI units are the standard.
1.6 There is no ISO method equivalent to this standard.
This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This practice is useful for testing materials in general, including composites and layered types.
The practice is especially useful for materials which undergo significant reactions or local dimensional changes, or both, during exposure to elevated temperatures and thus are difficult to evaluate using existing standard test methods such as Test Method C1113.
Performing the test over multiple heating/cooling cycles allows an assessment of the influence of reactions, phase changes, and mass transfer of reactions gases (for example, steam) on the thermal performance.
Note 3—This method has been found to be especially applicable to testing fire resistive materials.
SCOPE
1.1 This practice describes a technique for the determination of the apparent thermal conductivity, λa, of materials. It is for solid materials with apparent thermal conductivities in the approximate range 0.02  λa  2 W/(m·K) over the approximate temperature range between 300 K and 1100 K.
Note 1—While the practice should also be applicable to determining the thermal conductivity of non-reactive materials, it has been found specifically useful in testing fire resistive materials that are both reactive and undergo significant dimensional changes during a high temperature exposure.
1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
Coefficients of linear expansion are required for design purposes and are used particularly to determine thermal stresses that can occur when a solid artifact composed of different materials may fail when it is subjected to a temperature excursion(s).
Many new composites are being produced that have very low thermal expansion coefficients for use in applications where very precise and critical alignment of components is necessary. Push rod dilatometry such as Test Methods D696, E228, and TMA methods such as Test Methods E831 are not sufficiently precise for reliable measurements either on such material and systems, or on very short specimens of materials having higher coefficients.
The precision of the absolute method allows for its use to:
Measure very small changes in length;
Develop reference materials and transfer standards for calibration of other less precise techniques;
Measure and compare precisely the differences in coefficient of “matched” materials.
The precise measurement of thermal expansion involves two parameters; change of length and change of temperature. Since precise measurements of the first parameter can be made by this test method, it is essential that great attention is also paid to the second, in order to ensure that calculated expansion coefficients are based on the required temperature difference. Thus in order to ensure the necessary uniformity in temperature of the specimen, it is essential that the uniform temperature zone of the surrounding furnace or environmental chamber shall be made significantly longer than the combined length of specimen and mirrors.
This test method contains essential details of the design principles, specimen configurations, and procedures to provide precise values of thermal expansion. It is not practical in a method of this type to try to establish specific details of design, construction, and procedures to cover all contingencies that might present difficulties to a person not having the technic...
SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the determination of linear thermal expansion of rigid solids using either a Michelson or Fizeau interferometer.
1.2 For this purpose, a rigid solid is defined as a material which, at test temperature and under the stresses imposed by instrumentation, has a negligible creep, insofar as significantly affecting the precision of thermal length change measurements.  
1.3 It is recognized that many rigid solids require detailed preconditioning and specific thermal test schedules for correct evaluation of linear thermal expansion behavior for certain material applications. Since a general method of test cannot cover all specific requirements, details of this nature should be discussed in the particular material specifications.
1.4 This test method is applicable to the approximate temperature range −150 to 700°C. The temperature range may be extended depending on the instrumentation and calibration materials used.
1.5 The precision of measurement of this absolute method (better than ±40 nm/(m·K)) is significantly higher than that of comparative methods such as push rod dilatometry (for example, Test Methods D696 and E228) and thermomechanical analysis (for example, Test Method E831) techniques. It is applicable to materials having low and either positive or negative coefficients of expansion (below 5 μ m/(m·K)) and where only very limited lengths or thickness of other higher expansion coefficient materials are available.
1.6 Computer or electronic based instrumentation, techniques and data analysis systems equivalent to this test method can be used. Users of the test method are expressly advised that all such instruments or techniques may not be equivalent. It is the responsibility of the user to determine the necessary equivalency prior to use.
1.7 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.8 This standard...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
Thermal diffusivity is an important property, required for such purposes under transient heat flow conditions, such as design applications, determination of safe operating temperature, process control, and quality assurance.
The flash method is used to measure values of thermal diffusivity, α, of a wide range of solid materials. It is particularly advantageous because of simple specimen geometry, small specimen size requirements, rapidity of measurement and ease of handling.
Under certain strict conditions, specific heat capacity of a homogeneous isotropic opaque solid sample can be determined when the method is used in a quantitative fashion (see E 1461, Appendix 1).
Thermal diffusivity results, together with related values of specific heat capacity (Cp) and density (ρ) values, can be used in many cases to derive thermal conductivity (λ), according to the relationship:
SCOPE
1.1 This practice covers practical details associated with the determination of the thermal diffusivity of primarily homogeneous isotropic solid materials. Thermal diffusivity values ranging from 10-7 to 10-3 m2/s are readily measurable by this from about 75 to 2800 K.
1.2 This practice is adjunct to E 1461.  
1.3 This practice is applicable to the measurements performed on materials opaque to the spectrum of the energy pulse, but with special precautions can be used on fully or partially transparent materials.
1.4 This practice is intended to allow a wide variety of apparatus designs. It is not practical in a document of this type to establish details of construction and procedures to cover all contingencies that might offer difficulties to a person without pertinent technical knowledge, or to stop or restrict research and development for improvements in the basic technique. This practice provides guidelines for the construction principles, preferred embodiments and operating parameters for this type of instruments.
1.5 This practice is applicable to the measurements performed on essentially fully dense materials; however, in some cases it has shown to produce acceptable results when used with porous specimens. Since the magnitude of porosity, pore shapes, and parameters of pore distribution influence the behavior of the thermal diffusivity, extreme caution must be exercised when analyzing data. Special caution is advised when other properties, such as thermal conductivity, are derived from thermal diffusivity obtained by this method.
1.6 The flash can be considered an absolute (or primary) method of measurement, since no reference materials are required. It is advisable to use only reference materials to verify the performance of the instrument used.
1.7 This method is applicable only for homogeneous solid materials, in the strictest sense; however, in some cases it has been shown to produce data found to be useful in certain applications:
1.7.1 Testing of Composite Materials—When substantial non-homogeneity and anisotropy is present in a material, the thermal diffusivity data obtained with this method may be substantially in error. Nevertheless, such data, while usually lacking absolute accuracy, may be useful in comparing materials of similar structure. Extreme caution must be exercised when related properties, such as thermal conductivity, are derived, as composite materials, for example, may have heat flow patterns substantially different than uniaxial. In cases where the particle size of the composite phases is small compared to the specimen thickness (on the order of 1 to 25 % of thickness) and where the transient thermal response of the specimen appears homogenous when compared to the model, this method can produce accurate results for composite materials. Anisotropic materials can be measured by various techniques, as long as the directional thermal diffusivities (two dimensional or three dimensional) are mutually orthogonal and the measurement and specimen preparation produce heat flow only...

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
The comparative method of measurement of thermal conductivity is especially useful for engineering materials including ceramics, polymers, metals and alloys, refractories, carbons, and graphites including combinations and other composite forms of each.
Proper design of a guarded-longitudinal system is difficult and it is not practical in a method of this type to try to establish details of construction and procedures to cover all contingencies that might offer difficulties to a person without technical knowledge concerning theory of heat flow, temperature measurements, and general testing practices. Standardization of this test method is not intended to restrict in any way the future development by research workers of new or methods or improved procedures. However, new or improved techniques must be thoroughly tested. Requirements for qualifying an apparatus are outlined in Section 10.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method describes a steady state technique for the determination of the thermal conductivity, λ, of homogeneous-opaque solids (see Notes 1 and 2). This test method is for materials with effective thermal conductivities in the approximate range 0.2  λ  200 W/(m·K) over the approximate temperature range between 90 and 1300 K. It can be used outside these ranges with decreased accuracy.
Note 1—For purposes of this technique, a system is homogeneous if the apparent thermal conductivity of the specimen, λA, does not vary with changes of thickness or cross-sectional area by more than ±5 %. For composites or heterogeneous systems consisting of slabs or plates bonded together, the specimen should be more than 20 units wide and 20 units thick, respectively, where a unit is the thickness of the thickest slab or plate, so that diameter or length changes of one-half unit will affect the apparent λA   by less than ±5 %. For systems that are non-opaque or partially transparent in the infrared, the combined error due to inhomogeneity and photon transmission should be less than ±5 %. Measurements on highly transparent solids must be accompanied with infrared absorption coefficient information, or the results must be reported as apparent thermal conductivity, λA.
Note 2—This test method may also be used to evaluate the contact thermal conductance/resistance of materials.  
1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
Thermal diffusivity is an important property, required for such purposes under transient heat flow conditions, such as design applications, determination of safe operating temperature, process control, and quality assurance.
The flash method is used to measure values of thermal diffusivity, α, of a wide range of solid materials. It is particularly advantageous because of simple specimen geometry, small specimen size requirements, rapidity of measurement and ease of handling..
Under certain strict conditions, specific heat capacity of a homogeneous isotropic opaque solid sample can be determined when the method is used in a quantitative fashion (see Appendix X2).
Thermal diffusivity results, together with related values of specific heat capacity (Cp) and density (ρ) values, can be used in many cases to derive thermal conductivity (λ), according to the relationship:
SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the determination of the thermal diffusivity of primarily homogeneous isotropic solid materials. Thermal diffusivity values ranging from 10-7 to 10-3 m2/s are measurable by this test method from about 75 to 2800 K.
1.2 This test method is a more detailed form of Test Method C 714, having applicability to much wider ranges of materials, applications, and temperatures, with improved accuracy of measurements.
1.3 This test method is intended to allow a wide variety of apparatus designs. It is not practical in a test method of this type to establish details of construction and procedures to cover all contingencies that might offer difficulties to a person without pertinent technical knowledge, or to stop or restrict research and development for improvements in the basic technique.
1.4 This test method is applicable to the measurements performed on essentially fully dense (preferably, but low porosity would be acceptable), homogeneeous, and isotropic solid materials that are opaque to the specimen of applied energy pulse. Experience has shown, however, that some deviation from these strict guidelines can be accommodated with care and proper experimental design, substantially broadening the usefulness of the method.
1.5 This test method can be considered an absolute (or primary) method of measurement, since no reference standards are required. It is advisable to use reference materials to verify the performance of the instrument used.
1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard.
1.7 For systems employing lasers as power sources, it is imperative that the safety requirement be fully met..
1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SCOPE
1.1 This practice describes a technique for the determination of the apparent thermal conductivity, a, of materials. It is for solid materials with apparent thermal conductivities in the approximate range 0.02 a 2 W/(mK) over the approximate temperature range between 300 K and 1100 K.Note 1
While the practice should also be applicable to determining the thermal conductivity of non-reactive materials, it has been found specifically useful in testing fire resistive materials that are both reactive and undergo significant dimensional changes during a high temperature exposure.
This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
This test method is designed to measure and compare thermal properties of materials under controlled conditions and their ability to maintain required thermal conductance levels.
SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers a steady-state technique for the determination of the resistance to thermal transmission (thermal resistance) of materials in thicknesses of less than 25 mm. For homogeneous opaque solid specimens of a representative thickness, thermal conductivity can be determined (see Note 0). This test method is useful for specimens having a thermal resistance in the range from 10 to 400 104 m 2K/W, which can be obtained from materials of thermal conductivity in the approximate range from 0.1 to 30 W/(mK) over the approximate temperature range from 150 to 600 K. It can be used outside these ranges with reduced accuracy for thicker specimens and for thermal conductivity values up to 60 W/(mK).Note 0
A body is considered homogeneous when the property to be measured is found to be independent of specimen dimensions.
1.2 This test method is similar in concept to Test Method C 518, but is modified to accommodate smaller test specimens, having a higher thermal conductance. In addition, significant attention has been paid to ensure that the thermal resistance of contacting surfaces is minimized and reproducible.
1.3 The values stated in SI units are considered standard.
This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the determination of the linear thermal expansion of rigid solid materials using push-rod dilatometers. This method is applicable over any practical temperature range where a device can be constructed to satisfy the performance requirements set forth in this standard.Note 1
Initially, this method was developed for vitreous silica dilatometers operating over a temperature range of -180 to 900°C. The concepts and principles have been amply documented in the literature to be equally applicable for operating at higher temperatures. The precision and bias of these systems is believed to be of the same order as that for silica systems up to 900°C. However, their precision and bias have not yet been established over the relevant total range of temperature due to the lack of well-characterized reference materials and the need for interlaboratory comparisons.
1.2 For this purpose, a rigid solid is defined as a material that, at test temperature and under the stresses imposed by instrumentation, has a negligible creep or elastic strain rate, or both, thus insignificantly affecting the precision of thermal-length change measurements. This includes, as examples, metals, ceramics, refractories, glasses, rocks and minerals, graphites, plastics, cements, cured mortars, woods, and a variety of composites.
1.3 The precision of this comparative test method is higher than that of other push-rod dilatometry techniques (for example, Test Method D 696) and thermomechanical analysis (for example, Test Method E 831) but is significantly lower than that of absolute methods such as interferometry (for example, Test Method E 289). It is generally applicable to materials having absolute linear expansion coefficients exceeding 0.5 m/(mC) for a 1000°C range, and under special circumstances can be used for lower expansion materials when special precautions are used to ensure that the produced expansion of the specimen falls within the capabilities of the measuring system. In such cases, a sufficiently long specimen was found to meet the specification.
1.4 Computer- or electronic-based instrumentation, techniques, and data analysis systems may be used in conjunction with this test method, as long as it is established that such a system strictly adheres to the principles and computational schemes set forth in this method. Users of the test method are expressly advised that all such instruments or techniques may not be equivalent and may omit or deviate from the methodology described hereunder. It is the responsibility of the user to determine the necessary equivalency prior to use.
1.5 SI units are the standard.
1.6 There is no ISO method equivalent to this standard.
This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the determination of the linear thermal expansion of rigid solid materials over the temperature range of -180 to 900°C using vitreous silica push-rod or tube dilatometers.  Note 1-The temperature range for push-rod dilatometers can be extended to 1600°C by using high-purity alumina push-rod systems and up to over 2500°C using isotropic graphite systems. The precision and bias of these systems is believed to be of the same order as that for silica systems up to 900°C. However, their precision and bias have not yet been established over the relevant total range of temperature due to the lack of well-characterized reference materials and the need for interlaboratory comparisons.
1.2 For this purpose, a rigid solid is defined as a material that, at test temperature and under the stresses imposed by instrumentation, has a negligible creep or elastic strain rate, or both, regarding significantly affecting the precision of thermal-length change measurements. This includes metals, ceramics, refractories, glasses, rocks and minerals, graphites, plastics, cements, mortars, woods, and fiber, and other reinforced matrix composites.  
1.3 Many materials and certain material applications require that detailed preconditioning and specific thermal test schedules be followed for the correct evaluation of thermal expansion. Since a general test method cannot cover all specific requirements, details of this nature should be contained in the relevant material specification.  
1.4 The precision of this comparative test method is greater than that of other push-rod dilatometery (for example, Test Method D696) and thermomechanical analysis (for example, Test Method E831) techniques but is significantly lower than that of absolute methods such as interferometry (for example, Test Method E289). It is generally applicable to materials having linear expansion coefficients above 5 [mu]m/m[dot]K and can be used for lower expansion coefficient materials for which a sufficient length of specimen is available.  
1.5 Computer- or electronic-based instrumentation, techniques, and data analysis systems equivalent to this test method can be used. Users of the test method are expressly advised that all such instruments or techniques may not be equivalent. It is the responsibility of the user to determine the necessary equivalency prior to use. In the case of dispute only, the manual procedures described herein are to be considered valid.  
1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard.  
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
WITHDRAWN RATIONALE
This test method covers the determination of the linear thermal expansion of rigid solid materials over the temperature range of -180 to 900 C using vitreous silica push-rod or tube dilatometers.
Formerly under the jurisdicition of ASTM Committee E37 on Thermal Measurements, this test method was withdrawn in May 2005.

SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers the determination of linear thermal expansion of rigid solids using either a Michelson or Fizeau interferometer.
1.2 For this purpose, a rigid solid is defined as a material which, at test temperature and under the stresses imposed by instrumentation, has a negligible creep, insofar as significantly affecting the precision of thermal length change measurements.
1.3 It is recognized that many rigid solids require detailed preconditioning and specific thermal test schedules for correct evaluation of linear thermal expansion behavior for certain material applications. Since a general method of test cannot cover all specific requirements, details of this nature should be discussed in the particular material specifications.
1.4 This test method is applicable to the approximate temperature range 150 to 700C. The temperature range may be extended depending on the instrumentation and calibration materials used.
1.5 The precision of measurement of this absolute method (better than 40 nm/(mK)) is significantly higher than that of comparative methods such as push rod dilatometry (for example, Test Methods D 696 and E 228) and thermomechanical analysis (for example, Test Method E 831) techniques. It is applicable to materials having low and either positive or negative coefficients of expansion (below 5 m/(mK)) and where only very limited lengths or thickness of other higher expansion coefficient materials are available.
1.6 Computer or electronic based instrumentation, techniques and data analysis systems equivalent to this test method can be used. Users of the test method are expressly advised that all such instruments or techniques may not be equivalent. It is the responsibility of the user to determine the necessary equivalency prior to use.
This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
The comparative method of measurement of thermal conductivity is especially useful for engineering materials including ceramics, polymers, metals and alloys, refractories, carbons, and graphites including combinations and other composite forms of each.
Proper design of a guarded-longitudinal system is difficult and it is not practical in a method of this type to try to establish details of construction and procedures to cover all contingencies that might offer difficulties to a person without technical knowledge concerning theory of heat flow, temperature measurements, and general testing practices. Standardization of this test method is not intended to restrict in any way the future development by research workers of new or methods or improved procedures. However, new or improved techniques must be thoroughly tested. Requirements for qualifying an apparatus are outlined in Section 10.
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1.1 This test method describes a steady state technique for the determination of the thermal conductivity, , of homogeneous-opaque solids (see Note 1 and Note 2). This test method is for materials with effective thermal conductivities in the approximate range 0.2 200 W/(mK) over the approximate temperature range between 90 and 1300 K. It can be used outside these ranges with decreased accuracy. Note 0For purposes of this technique, a system is homogeneous if the apparent thermal conductivity of the specimen, A, does not vary with changes of thickness or cross-sectional area by more than 5 %. For composites or heterogeneous systems consisting of slabs or plates bonded together, the specimen should be more than 20 units wide and 20 units thick, respectively, where a unit is the thickness of the thickest slab or plate, so that diameter or length changes of one-half unit will affect the apparent A   by less than 5 %. For systems that are non-opaque or partially transparent in the infrared, the combined error due to inhomogeneity and photon transmission should be less than 5 %. Measurements on highly transparent solids must be accompanied with infrared absorption coefficient information, or the results must be reported as apparent thermal conductivity, A.Note 2
This test method may also be used to evaluate the contact thermal conductance/resistance of materials.
1.2 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

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1.1 This test method covers a steady-state technique for the determination of the resistance to thermal transmission (thermal resistance) of materials in thicknesses of less than 25 mm. For homogeneous opaque solid specimens of a representative thickness, thermal conductivity can be determined (see Note 0). This test method is useful for specimens having a thermal resistance in the range from 10 to 400 104 m2K/W, which can be obtained from materials of thermal conductivity in the approximate range from 0.1 to 30 W/(mK) over the approximate temperature range from 150 to 600 K. It can be used outside these ranges with reduced accuracy for thicker specimens and for thermal conductivity values up to 60 W/(mK).Note 0
A body is considered homogeneous when the property to be measured is found to be independent of specimen dimensions.
1.2 This test method is similar in concept to Test Method C 518, but is modified to accommodate smaller test specimens, having a higher thermal conductance. In addition, significant attention has been paid to ensure that the thermal resistance of contacting surfaces is minimized and reproducible.
1.3 The values stated in SI units are considered standard.
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
Thermal diffusivity is an important property, required for such purposes as design applications under transient heat flow conditions, determination of safe operating temperature, process control, and quality assurance.
The flash method is used to measure values of thermal diffusivity, α, of a wide range of solid materials. It is particularly advantageous because of simple specimen geometry, small specimen size requirements, rapidity of measurement and ease of handling, with a single apparatus, of materials having a wide range of thermal diffusivity values over a large temperature range.
Under certain strict conditions, specific heat capacity of a homogeneous isotropic opaque solid sample can be determined when the method is used in a quantitative fashion (see Appendix X4).
Thermal diffusivity results, together with specific heat capacity (Cp) and density (ρ) values, can be used in many cases to derive thermal conductivity (λ), according to the relationship:
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1.1 This test method covers the determination of the thermal diffusivity of primarily homogeneous isotropic solid materials. Thermal diffusivity values ranging from 10-7 to 10-3 m 2/s are readily measurable by this test method from about 75 to 2800 K.
1.2 This test method is a more detailed form of Test Method C 714, but has applicability to much wider ranges of materials, applications, and temperatures, with improved accuracy of measurements.
1.3 This test method is applicable to the measurements performed on materials opaque to the spectrum of the energy pulse, but with special precautions can be used on fully or partially transparent materials (see Appendix X1).
1.4 This test method is intended to allow a wide variety of apparatus designs. It is not practical in a test method of this type to establish details of construction and procedures to cover all contingencies that might offer difficulties to a person without pertinent technical knowledge, or to stop or restrict research and development for improvements in the basic technique.
1.5 This test method is applicable to the measurements performed on essentially fully dense materials; however, in some cases it has shown to produce acceptable results when used with porous samples. Since the magnitude of porosity, pore shapes, sizes and parameters of pore distribution influence the behavior of the thermal diffusivity, extreme caution must be exercised when analyzing data. Special caution is advised when other properties, such as thermal conductivity, are derived from thermal diffusivity obtained by this method.
1.6 This test method can be considered an absolute (or primary) method of measurement, since no reference standards are required. It is advisable to use reference materials to verify the performance of the instrument used.
1.7 This method is applicable only for homogeneous solid materials, in the strictest sense; however, in some cases it has shown to produce data which may be useful in certain applications.
1.7.1 Testing of Composite Materials--When substantial inhomogeneity and anisotropy is present in a material, the thermal diffusivity data obtained with this method may be substantially in error. Nevertheless, such data, while usually lacking absolute accuracy, may be useful in comparing materials of similar structure. Extreme caution must be exercised when related properties, such as thermal conductivity, are derived, as composites may have heat flow patterns substantially different than uniaxial.
1.7.2 Testing Liquids--This method has found an especially useful application in determining thermal diffusivity of molten materials. For this technique, specially constructed sample enclosures must be used.
1.7.3 Testing Layered Materials--This method has also been extended to test certain layered structures made of dissimilar materials, where one of the layers is considered unknown. In some cases, contact conductance of the interface may also be determined.
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1.1 This test method covers the determination of the thermal diffusivity of primarily homogeneous isotropic solid materials. Thermal diffusivity values ranging from 10-7 to 10-3 m 2/s are readily measurable by this test method from about 75 to 2800 K.
1.2 This test method is a more detailed form of Test Method C 714, but has applicability to much wider ranges of materials, applications, and temperatures, with improved accuracy of measurements.
1.3 This test method is applicable to the measurements performed on materials opaque to the spectrum of the energy pulse, but with special precautions can be used on fully or partially transparent materials (see Appendix X1).
1.4 This test method is intended to allow a wide variety of apparatus designs. It is not practical in a test method of this type to establish details of construction and procedures to cover all contingencies that might offer difficulties to a person without pertinent technical knowledge, or to stop or restrict research and development for improvements in the basic technique.
1.5 This test method is applicable to the measurements performed on essentially fully dense materials; however, in some cases it has shown to produce acceptable results when used with porous samples. Since the magnitude of porosity, pore shapes, sizes and parameters of pore distribution influence the behavior of the thermal diffusivity, extreme caution must be exercised when analyzing data. Special caution is advised when other properties, such as thermal conductivity, are derived from thermal diffusivity obtained by this method.
1.6 This test method can be considered an absolute (or primary) method of measurement, since no reference standards are required. It is advisable to use reference materials to verify the performance of the instrument used.
1.7 This method is applicable only for homogeneous solid materials, in the strictest sense; however, in some cases it has shown to produce data which may be useful in certain applications.
1.7.1 Testing of Composite Materials--When substantial inhomogeneity and anisotropy is present in a material, the thermal diffusivity data obtained with this method may be substantially in error. Nevertheless, such data, while usually lacking absolute accuracy, may be useful in comparing materials of similar structure. Extreme caution must be exercised when related properties, such as thermal conductivity, are derived, as composites may have heat flow patterns substantially different than uniaxial.
1.7.2 Testing Liquids--This method has found an especially useful application in determining thermal diffusivity of molten materials. For this technique, specially constructed sample enclosures must be used.
1.7.3 Testing Layered Materials--This method has also been extended to test certain layered structures made of dissimilar materials, where one of the layers is considered unknown. In some cases, contact conductance of the interface may also be determined.
1.8 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard.
1.9 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

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1.1 This test method describes a steady state technique for the determination of the thermal conductivity, [lambda], of homogeneous-opaque solids (see Notes 1 and 2). This test method is for materials with effective conductivities in the approximate range 0.2 ∧ [lambda] ∧ 200 W/ [dot]K over the approximate temperature range between 90 and 1300 K. It can be used outside these ranges with decreased accuracy. Note 1-For purposes of this technique, a system is homogeneous if the apparent thermal conductivity of the specimen, [lambda] , does not vary with changes of thickness or cross-sectional area by more than +5%. For composites or heterogeneous systems consisting of slabs or plates bonded together, the specimen should be more than 20 units wide and 20 units thick, respectively, where a unit is the thickness of the thickest slab or plate, so that diameter or length changes of one-half unit will affect the apparent [lambda] by less than +5%. For systems that are non-opaque or partially transparent in the infrared, the combined error due to inhomogeneity and photon transmission should be less than +5%. Measurements on highly transparent solids must be accompanied with infrared absorption coefficient information or the results must be reported as apparent [lambda] . Note 2-This test method may also be used to evaluate the thermal conductance/resistance of materials in contact.
1.2 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

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1.1 This test method covers the determination of linear thermal expansion of rigid solids using either a Michelson or Fizeau interferometer.  
1.2 For this purpose, a rigid solid is defined as a material which, at test temperature and under the stresses imposed by instrumentation, has a negligible creep or elastic strain rate, or both, insofar as significantly affecting the precision of thermal length change measurements. This includes metals, ceramics, refractories, glasses, rocks and minerals, graphites and fiber, and other reinforced matrix composites.  
1.3 It is recognized that many rigid solids require detailed preconditioning and specific thermal test schedules for correct evaluation of linear thermal expansion behavior for certain material applications. Since a general method of test cannot cover all specific requirements, details of this nature should be discussed in the particular material specifications.  
1.4 This test method is applicable to the approximate temperature range -150 to 700°C. The temperature range may be extended depending on the instrumentation and calibration materials used.  
1.5 The precision of measurement of this absolute method (better than +40 nm/m[dot]K) is significantly higher than that of comparative methods such as push rod dilatometry (for example, Test Methods D696 and E228) and thermomechanical analysis (for example, Test Method E831) techniques. It is more applicable to materials having low and, or negative coefficients, or both, of expansion (below 5 [mu]m/m[dot]K) and where only very limited lengths or thickness of other higher expansion coefficient materials are available.  
1.6 Computer of electronic based instrumentation, techniques and data analysis systems equivalent to this test method can be used. Users of the test method are expressly advised that all such instruments or techniques may not be equivalent. It is the responsibility of the user to determine the necessary equivalency prior to use.  
1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

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1.1 This test method covers a steady-state technique for the determination of the resistance to thermal transmission (thermal resistance) of thin specimens of materials and composites, especially in thicknesses of less than 12 mm. If the single or stacked thin specimens are homogeneous opaque solids and a representative thickness is used then thermal conductivity can be determined (see Notes 1 and 2). This test method is especially useful for materials in sheet and similar forms having a thermal resistance in the range from 20 to 400 X 10 -4  m2 K/W (an effective thermal conductivity in the approximate range 0.1 ∧ [lambda] ∧ 5 W/m[dot]K) over the approximate temperature range from 150 to 600 K. It can be used outside these ranges with reduced accuracy for thicker specimens and for thermal conductivities up to 10 W/m[dot]K.  Note 1-A body is considered homogeneous when the above property is found by measurement to be independent of specimen dimensions. Note 2-This test method may also be used to evaluate the thermal conductance/resistance of materials in contact, such as gaskets, and thermal conductance of gasket materials under actual high-loading conditions of a particular application.
1.2 This test method is similar in concept to Test Method C518 but is modified to accommodate smaller test specimens having a higher thermal conductance. In addition, significant attention has been paid to ensure that the thermal resistance of contacting surfaces are minimized and reproducible such that instrumentation of calibration and test specimens with temperature sensors is unnecessary. There are cases, such as Practice F433, where the method is used with instrumentation of the reference specimen and utilization of an analog calculator. General information on improvements in this latter technique and on the modified calculation procedures are given in two appendices.
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard.
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety problems, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.