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ASTM D7128-05

(Guide)

Standard Guide for Using the Seismic-Reflection Method for Shallow Subsurface Investigation

Standard Guide for Using the Seismic-Reflection Method for Shallow Subsurface Investigation

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1.1 Purpose and Application
1.1.1 This guide summarizes the technique, equipment, field procedures, data processing, and interpretation methods for the assessment of shallow subsurface conditions using the seismic-reflection method.
1.1.2 Seismic reflection measurements as described in this guide are applicable in mapping shallow subsurface conditions for various uses including geologic (), geotechnical, hydrogeologic (), and environmental (. The seismic-reflection method is used to map, detect, and delineate geologic conditions including the bedrock surface, confining layers (aquitards), faults, lithologic stratigraphy, voids, water table, fracture systems, and layer geometry (folds). The primary application of the seismic-reflection method is the mapping of lateral continuity of lithologic units and, in general, detection of change in acoustic properties in the subsurface.
1.1.3 This guide will focus on the seismic-reflection method as it is applied to the near surface. Near-surface seismic reflection applications are based on the same principles as those used for deeper seismic reflection surveying, but accepted practices can differ in several respects. Near-surface seismic-reflection data are generally high-resolution (dominant frequency above 80 Hz) and image depths from around 6 m to as much as several hundred meters. Investigations shallower than 6 m have occasionally been undertaken, but these should be considered experimental.
1.2 Limitations
1.2.1 This guide provides an overview of the shallow seismic-reflection method, but it does not address the details of seismic theory, field procedures, data processing, or interpretation of the data. Numerous references are included for that purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is recommended that the user of the seismic-reflection method be familiar with the relevant material in this guide, the references cited in the text, and Guides D 420, D 653, D 2845, D 4428/D 4428M, Practice D 5088, Guides D 5608, D 5730, D 5753, D 6235, and D 6429.
1.2.2 This guide is limited to two-dimensional (2-D) shallow seismic-reflection measurements made on land. The seismic-reflection method can be adapted for a wide variety of special uses: on land, within a borehole, on water, and in three dimensions (3-D). However, a discussion of these specialized adaptations of reflection measurements is not included in this guide.
1.2.3 This guide provides information to help understand the concepts and application of the seismic-reflection method to a wide range of geotechnical, engineering, and groundwater problems.
1.2.4 The approaches suggested in this guide for the seismic-reflection method are commonly used, widely accepted, and proven; however, other approaches or modifications to the seismic-reflection method that are technically sound may be equally suited.
1.2.5 Technical limitations of the seismic-reflection method are discussed in .
1.2.6 This guide discusses both compressional (P) and shear (S) wave reflection methods. Where applicable, the distinctions between the two methods will be pointed out in this guide.
1.3 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This guide is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration for a projects many unique aspects. The word "Standard" in the title of this guide means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.
1.4 The values stated in SI units are regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are inch-pound units, which are provided for information only and ...

General Information

Status
Historical
Publication Date
31-Dec-2004
ICS
07.060 - Geology. Meteorology. Hydrology
Technical Committee
D18 - Soil and Rock
Drafting Committee
D18.01 - Surface and Subsurface Investigation
Current Stage
Ref Project

Relations

Replaced By
ASTM D7128-05(2010) - Standard Guide for Using the Seismic-Reflection Method for Shallow Subsurface Investigation
Effective Date
01-May-2010
Referred By
ASTM D6429-23 - Standard Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods
Effective Date
01-Jan-2005
Referred By
ASTM D420-18 - Standard Guide for Site Characterization for Engineering Design and Construction Purposes
Effective Date
01-Jan-2005

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ASTM D7128-05 - Standard Guide for Using the Seismic-Reflection Method for Shallow Subsurface InvestigationASTM D7128-05 - Standard Guide for Using the Seismic-Reflection Method for Shallow Subsurface Investigation
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ASTM D7128-05 - Standard Guide for Using the Seismic-Reflection Method for Shallow Subsurface Investigation
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NOTICE: This standard has either been superseded and replaced by a new version or withdrawn.
Contact ASTM International (www.astm.org) for the latest information
Designation: D7128 – 05
Standard Guide for
Using the Seismic-Reflection Method for Shallow
1
Subsurface Investigation
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D7128; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision.Anumber in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval.A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope familiar with the relevant material in this guide, the references
cited in the text, and Guides D420, D653, D2845, D4428/
1.1 Purpose and Application:
D4428M, Practice D5088, Guides D5608, D5730, D5753,
1.1.1 Thisguidesummarizesthetechnique,equipment,field
D6235, and D6429.
procedures,dataprocessing,andinterpretationmethodsforthe
1.2.2 This guide is limited to two-dimensional (2-D) shal-
assessmentofshallowsubsurfaceconditionsusingtheseismic-
low seismic-reflection measurements made on land. The
reflection method.
seismic-reflection method can be adapted for a wide variety of
1.1.2 Seismic reflection measurements as described in this
special uses: on land, within a borehole, on water, and in three
guide are applicable in mapping shallow subsurface conditions
dimensions (3-D). However, a discussion of these specialized
for various uses including geologic (1), geotechnical, hydro-
2 adaptations of reflection measurements is not included in this
geologic (2), and environmental (3). The seismic-reflection
guide.
method is used to map, detect, and delineate geologic condi-
1.2.3 This guide provides information to help understand
tions including the bedrock surface, confining layers (aquita-
the concepts and application of the seismic-reflection method
rds), faults, lithologic stratigraphy, voids, water table, fracture
to a wide range of geotechnical, engineering, and groundwater
systems, and layer geometry (folds). The primary application
problems.
of the seismic-reflection method is the mapping of lateral
1.2.4 The approaches suggested in this guide for the
continuity of lithologic units and, in general, detection of
seismic-reflection method are commonly used, widely ac-
change in acoustic properties in the subsurface.
cepted, and proven; however, other approaches or modifica-
1.1.3 Thisguidewillfocusontheseismic-reflectionmethod
tions to the seismic-reflection method that are technically
as it is applied to the near surface. Near-surface seismic
sound may be equally suited.
reflection applications are based on the same principles as
1.2.5 Technical limitations of the seismic-reflection method
those used for deeper seismic reflection surveying, but ac-
are discussed in 5.4.
cepted practices can differ in several respects. Near-surface
1.2.6 Thisguidediscussesbothcompressional(P)andshear
seismic-reflectiondataaregenerallyhigh-resolution(dominant
(S)wavereflectionmethods.Whereapplicable,thedistinctions
frequency above 80 Hz) and image depths from around6mto
between the two methods will be pointed out in this guide.
as much as several hundred meters. Investigations shallower
1.3 This guide offers an organized collection of information
than 6 m have occasionally been undertaken, but these should
or a series of options and does not recommend a specific
be considered experimental.
course of action. This document cannot replace education or
1.2 Limitations:
experienceandshouldbeusedinconjunctionwithprofessional
1.2.1 This guide provides an overview of the shallow
judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all
seismic-reflectionmethod,butitdoesnotaddressthedetailsof
circumstances. This guide is not intended to represent or
seismic theory, field procedures, data processing, or interpre-
replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given
tation of the data. Numerous references are included for that
professional service must be judged, nor should this document
purpose and are considered an essential part of this guide. It is
be applied without consideration for a project’s many unique
recommendedthattheuseroftheseismic-reflectionmethodbe
aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this guide means
only that the document has been approved through the ASTM
1
ThisguideisunderthejurisdictionofASTMCommitteeD18onSoilandRock
consensus process.
and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee D18.01 on Surface and Subsurface
1.4 The values stated in SI units are regarded as standard.
Characterization.
The values given in parentheses are inch-pound units, which
Current edition approved Jan. 1, 2005. Published February 2005. DOI: 10.1520/
D7128-05.
are provided for information only and are not considered
2
Theboldfacenumbersinparenthesesrefertothelistofreferencesattheendof
standard.
this standard.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 194
...

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5.1 Using a geohazard netting as a medium to retain rock particles necessitates compatibility between it and the adjacent rock. This test method measures the mass per unit area of a geohazard netting which is often specified by design engineers as an indicator of a geohazard netting’s ability to stabilize and control the movement of loose rocks. Knowing a geohazard netting’s mass per unit area is also important in analyzing the anchoring required to support the mesh at the top of a soil or rock slope.  
5.2 This test method may also be used for quality control during the manufacturing process and quality assurance that material meets project or material specifications.
Note 1: The quality of the result produced by this standard is dependent on the competence of the personnel performing it, and the suitability of the equipment and facilities used. Agencies that meet the criteria of Practice D3740 are generally considered capable of competent and objective testing/sampling/inspection/etc. Users of this standard are cautioned that compliance with Practice D3740 does not in itself assure reliable results. Reliable results depend on many factors; Practice D3740 provides a means of evaluating some of those factors.
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1.1 This test method is an index test to determine the mass per unit area of geohazard nettings. The mass per unit area is a characteristic of a geohazard netting that contributes to its ability to stabilize and control the movement of loose rocks. There are many different types of geohazard nettings which necessitates a single standard by which all geohazard nettings may be measured.  
1.2 Units—The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are provided for information only and are not considered standard. Reporting of test results in units other than SI shall not be regarded as nonconformance with this standard.  
1.2.1 It is common practice in the engineering/construction profession to concurrently use pounds to represent both a unit of mass (lbm) and of force (lbf). This practice implicitly combines two separate systems of units; the absolute and the gravitational systems. It is scientifically undesirable to combine the use of two separate sets of inch-pound units within a single standard. As stated, this standard includes the gravitational system of inch-pound units and does not use/present the slug unit of mass. However, the use of balances and scales recording pounds of mass (lbm) or recording density in lbm/ft3 shall not be regarded as nonconformance with this standard.  
1.2.2 The terms density and unit weight are often used interchangeably. Density is mass per unit volume, whereas, unit weight is force per unit volume. In this standard, density is given only in SI units. After the density has been determined, the unit weight is calculated in SI or inch-pound units, or both.  
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Standard Practice for (Analytical Procedures) Determining Transmissivity of Confined Nonleaky Aquifers by Critically Damped Well Response to Instantaneous Change in Head (Slug)

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6.1 The assumptions of the physical system are given as follows:  
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6.1.2 The aquifer is of constant homogeneous porosity and matrix compressibility and constant homogeneous and isotropic hydraulic conductivity.  
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6.1.4 The aquifer is fully screened.  
6.1.5 The well is 100 % efficient, that is, the skin factor, f, and dimensionless skin factor, σ, are zero.  
6.2 The assumptions made in defining the momentum balance are as follows:  
6.2.1 The average water velocity in the well is approximately constant over the well-bore section.  
6.2.2 Frictional head losses from flow in the well are negligible.  
6.2.3 Flow through the well screen is uniformly distributed over the entire aquifer thickness.  
6.2.4 Change in momentum from the water velocity changing from radial flow through the screen to vertical flow in the well are negligible.  
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1.1 This practice covers determination of transmissivity from the measurement of water-level response to a sudden change of water level in a well-aquifer system characterized as being critically damped or in the transition range from underdamped to overdamped. Underdamped response is characterized by oscillatory changes in water level; overdamped response is characterized by return of the water level to the initial static level in an approximately exponential manner. Overdamped response is covered in Guide D4043; underdamped response is covered in Practice D5785/D5785M, Guide D4043.  
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ASTM D5912-20(Practice)
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SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Assumptions of Solution:  
5.1.1 Drawdown (or mounding) of the water table around the well is negligible.  
5.1.2 Flow above the water table can be ignored.  
5.1.3 Head losses as the water enters or leaves the well are negligible.  
5.1.4 The aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic.
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Note 7: Short term refers to the duration of the slug test.
Note 8: The function of wells in any unconfined setting in a fractured terrain might make the determination of k problematic because the wells might only intersect tributary or subsidiary channels or conduits. The problems determining the k of a channel or conduit notwithstanding, the partial penetration of tributary channels may make a determination of a meaningful number difficult. If plots of k in carbonates and other fractured settings are made and compared, they may show no indication that there are conduits or channels present, except when with the lowest probability one maybe intersected by a borehole and can be verified, such problems are described by Smart (1999) (6). Additional guidance can be found in Guide D5717.
Note 9: The comparison of data from various methods on variable head permeability tests has been documented. Variation in instrumentation, assumptions and calculational methods will lead to differing results (7). Users should be familiar with the assumptions, instrumentation and calculational aspects of the test when evaluating the results (8).
Note 10: The quality of the result produced by this standard is dependen...
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1.2 The analytical procedure in this practice is used in conjunction with the field procedure in Test Method D4044/D4044M for collection of test data.  
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SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Assumptions:  
5.1.1 The control well discharges at a constant rate, Q.  
5.1.2 The control well, observation wells, and piezometers are of infinitesimal diameter.  
5.1.3 The unconfined aquifer is homogeneous and really extensive.  
5.1.4 Discharge from the control well is derived initially from elastic storage in the aquifer, and later from gravity drainage from the water table.  
5.1.5 The geometry of the aquifer, control well, observation wells, and piezometers is shown in Fig. 2. The geometry of the test wells should be adjusted depending on the parameters of interest.
FIG. 2 Cross Section Through a Discharging Well Screened in Part of an Unconfined Aquifer  
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5.2.1 Use of the Neuman (1) method assumes the control well is of infinitesimal diameter. The storage in the control well may adversely affect drawdown measurements obtained in the early part of the test. See 5.2.2 of Practice D4106 for assistance in determining the duration of the effects of well-bore storage on drawdown.  
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5.3 Practice D3740 provides evaluation factors for the activities in this practice.
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1.1 This practice covers an analytical procedure for determining the transmissivity, storage coefficient, specific yield, and horizontal-to-vertical hydraulic conductivity ratio of an unconfined aquifer. It is used to analyze the drawdown of water levels in piezometers and partially or fully penetrating observation wells during pumping from a control well at a constant rate.  
1.2 The analytical procedure given in this practice is used in conjunction with Guide D4043 and Test Method D4050.  
1.3 The valid use of the Neuman method is limited to determination of transmissivities for aquifers in hydrogeologic settings with reasonable correspondence to the assumptions of the theory.  
1.4 Units—The values stated in either SI units or inch-pound units are to be regarded separately as standard. The values stated in each system may not be exact equivalents; therefore, each system shall be used independently of the other. Combining values from the two systems may result in nonconformance with the standard. Reporting of test result in units other than SI shall not be regarded as nonconformance with this standard.  
1.5 All observed and calculated values shall conform to the guidelines for significant digits and rounding established in Practice D6026.  
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ASTM D6391-11(2020)(Test Method)
Standard Test Method for Field Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity Using Borehole Infiltration

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5.1 This test method provides a means to measure the hydraulic conductivity of isotropic materials and the maximum vertical and minimum horizontal hydraulic conductivities of anisotropic materials, especially in the low ranges associated with fine-grained clayey soils, 1×10–7 m/s to 1×10–11 m/s.  
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5.3 The soil layer being tested must have sufficient cohesion to stand open during excavation of the borehole.  
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1.1 This test method covers field measurement of hydraulic conductivity (also referred to as coefficient of permeability) of porous materials using a cased borehole technique. When isotropic conditions can be assumed and a flush borehole is employed, the method yields the hydraulic conductivity of the porous material. When isotropic conditions cannot be assumed, the method yields limiting values of the hydraulic conductivity in the vertical direction (upper limit) if a single stage is conducted and the horizontal direction (lower limit) if a second stage is conducted. For anisotropic conditions, determination of the actual hydraulic conductivity requires further analysis by qualified personnel.  
1.2 This test method may be used for compacted fills or natural deposits, above or below the water table, that have a mean hydraulic conductivity less than or equal to 1×10–5 m/s (1×10–3 cm/s).  
1.3 Hydraulic conductivity greater than 1×10–5 m/s may be determined by ordinary borehole tests, for example, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 7310 (1)2; however, the resulting value is an apparent conductivity.  
1.4 For this test method, a distinction must be made between “saturated” (Ks) and “field-saturated” (Kfs) hydraulic conductivity. True saturated conditions seldom occur in the vadose zone except where impermeable layers result in the presence of perched water tables. During infiltration events or in the event of a leak from a lined pond, a “field-saturated” condition develops. True saturation does not occur due to entrapped air (2). The entrapped air prevents water from moving in air-filled pores, which may reduce the hydraulic conductivity measured in the field by as much as a factor of two compared with conditions when trapped air is not present (3). This test method develops the “field-saturated” condition.  
1.5 Experience with this test method has been predominantly in materials having a degree of saturation of 70 % or more...

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ASTM
ASTM D6432-19(Guide)
Standard Guide for Using the Surface Ground Penetrating Radar Method for Subsurface Investigation

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Concepts—This guide summarizes the equipment, field procedures, and data processing methods used to interpret geologic conditions, and to identify and provide locations of geologic anomalies and man-made objects with the GPR method. The GPR uses high-frequency EM waves (from 10 to 3000 MHz) to acquire subsurface information. Energy is propagated downward into the ground from a transmitting antenna and is reflected back to a receiving antenna from subsurface boundaries between media possessing different EM properties. The reflected signals are recorded to produce a scan or trace of radar data. Typically, scans obtained as the antenna(s) are moved over the ground surface are placed side by side to produce a radar profile.  
5.1.1 The vertical scale of the radar profile is in units of two-way travel time, the time it takes for an EM wave to travel down to a reflector and back to the surface. The travel time may be converted to depth by relating it to on-site measurements or assumptions about the velocity of the radar waves in the subsurface materials.  
5.1.2 Vertical variations in propagation velocity due to changing EM properties of the subsurface can make it difficult to apply a linear time scale to the radar profile (Ulriksen (31)).  
5.2 Parameter Being Measured and Representative Values:  
5.2.1 Two-Way Travel Time and Velocity—A GPR trace is the record of the amplitude of EM energy that has been reflected from interfaces between materials possessing different EM properties and recorded as a function of two-way travel time. To convert two-way times to depths, it is necessary to estimate or determine the propagation velocity of the EM pulses or waves. The relative permittivity of the material (εr) through which the EM pulse or wave propagates mostly determines the propagation velocity of the EM wave. The propagation velocity through the material is approximated using the following relationship (see full formula in Balanis (32)):
    where:
  c  ...
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1.1 Purpose and Application:  
1.1.1 This guide covers the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation methods for the assessment of subsurface materials using the Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Method. GPR is most often employed as a technique that uses high-frequency electromagnetic (EM) waves (from 10 to 7000 MHz) to acquire subsurface information. GPR detects changes in EM properties (dielectric permittivity, conductivity, and magnetic permeability), that in a geologic setting, are a function of soil and rock material, water content, and bulk density. Data are normally acquired using antennas placed on the ground surface or in boreholes. The transmitting antenna radiates EM waves that propagate in the subsurface and reflect from boundaries at which there are EM property contrasts. The receiving GPR antenna records the reflected waves over a selectable time range. The depths to the reflecting interfaces are calculated from the arrival times in the GPR data if the EM propagation velocity in the subsurface can be estimated or measured.  
1.1.2 GPR measurements as described in this guide are used in geologic, engineering, hydrologic, and environmental applications. The GPR method is used to map geologic conditions that include depth to bedrock, depth to the water table (Wright et al (1)2), depth and thickness of soil strata on land and under fresh water bodies (Beres and Haeni (2)), and the location of subsurface cavities and fractures in bedrock (Ulriksen (3) and Imse and Levine (4)). Other applications include the location of objects such as pipes, drums, tanks, cables, and boulders, mapping landfill and trench boundaries (Benson et al (5)), mapping contaminants (Cosgrave et al (6); Brewster and Annan (7); Daniels et al (8)), conducting archaeological (Vaughan (9)) and forensic investigations (Davenport et al (10)), inspection of brick, masonry, and concrete structures, roads and railroad trackbed studies (Ulrik...

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ASTM
ASTM D5878-19(Guide)
Standard Guides for Using Rock-Mass Classification Systems for Engineering Purposes

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
4.1 The classification systems included in this standard and their respective applications are as follows:  
4.1.1 Rock Mass Rating System (RMR) or Geomechanics Classification—This system has been applied to tunneling, hard-rock mining, coal mining, stability of rock slopes, rock foundations, borability, rippability, dredgability, weatherability, and rock bolting.  
4.1.2 Rock Structure Rating System (RSR)—This system has been used in tunnel support and excavation and in other ground support work in mining and construction.  
4.1.3 The Q System or Norwegian Geotechnical Institute System (NGI)—This system has been applied to work on tunnels and chambers, rippability, excavatability, hydraulic erodibility, and seismic stability of roof-rock.  
4.1.4 The Unified Rock Classification System (URCS)—This system has been applied to work on foundations, methods of excavation, slope stability, uses of earth materials, blasting characteristics of earth materials, and transmission of groundwater.  
4.1.5 The Rock Material Field Classification System (RMFCS)—This system has been used mainly for applications involving shallow excavation, particularly with regard to hydraulic erodibility in earth spillways, excavatability, construction quality of rock, fluid transmission, and rock-mass stability (2).  
4.1.6 The New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM)—This system is used for both conventional (cyclical, such as drill-and-blast) and continuous (tunnel-boring machine or TBM) tunneling. This is a tunneling procedure in which design is extended into the construction phase by continued monitoring of rock displacement. Support requirements are revised to achieve stability (3).
Note 2: The Austrian standard (4) specifies methods of payment based on coding of excavation volume and means of support.  
4.1.7 The Coal Mine Roof Rating (CMRR)—This system applies to bedded coal-measure rocks, in particular with regard to their structural competence as influenced by discontinuities in the...
SCOPE
1.1 These guides offer the selection of a suitable system of classification of rock mass for specific engineering purposes, such as tunneling and shaft-sinking, excavation of rock chambers, ground support, modification and stabilization of rock slopes, and preparation of foundations and abutments. These classification systems may also be of use in work on rippability of rock, quality of construction materials, and erosion resistance. Although widely used classification systems are treated in this standard, systems not included here may be more appropriate in some situations, and may be added to subsequent editions of this standard.  
1.2 The valid, effective use of this standard is contingent upon the prior complete definition of the engineering purposes to be served and on the complete and competent definition of the geology and hydrology of the engineering site. Further, the person or persons using this standard shall have had field experience in studying rock-mass behavior. An appropriate reference for geotechnical mapping of large underground openings in rock is provided by Guide D4879.  
1.3 This standard identifies the essential characteristics of seven classification systems. It does not include detailed guidance for application to all engineering purposes for which a particular system might be validly used. Detailed descriptions of the first five systems are presented in STP 984 (1),2 with abundant references to source literature. Details of two other classification systems and a listing of seven Japanese systems are also presented.  
1.4 The range of applications of each of the systems has grown since its inception. This standard summarizes the major fields of application up to this time of each of the seven classification systems.  
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard. The values given in parentheses are mathematical conversions to inch-pounds units that are provided for inf...

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ASTM D3213-19(Practice)
Standard Practices for Handling, Storing, and Preparing Soft Intact Marine Soil

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Disturbance imparted to sediments after sampling can significantly affect some geotechnical properties. Careful practices need to be followed to minimize soil fabric changes caused from handling, transporting, storing, and preparing sediment specimens for testing.
Note 1: The quality of the result produced by this standard is dependent on the competence of the personnel performing it, and the suitability of the equipment and facilities used. Agencies that meet the criteria of Practice D3740 are generally considered capable of competent and objective testing/sampling/inspection, etc. Users of this standard are cautioned that compliance with Practice D3740 does not in itself assure reliable results. Reliable results depend on may factors; Practice D3740 provides a means of evaluating some of those factors.  
5.2 The practices presented in this document should be used with soil that has a very soft or soft shear strength (undrained shear strength less than 25 kPa (3.6 psi)) consistency.
Note 2: Some soils that are obtained at or just below the seafloor quickly deform under their own weight if left unsupported. This type of behavior presents special problems for some types of testing. Special handling and preparation procedures are required under those circumstances. Tests, such as the handheld vane (D4648/D4648M) or miniature vane (D8121/D8121M), are sometimes performed at sea to minimize the effect of storage time and handling on soil properties. An undrained shear strength of less than 25 kPa was selected based on Terzaghi and Peck.3 They defined a soft saturated clay as having an undrained shear strength less than 25 kPa.  
5.3 These practices shall apply to specimens of naturally formed marine soil (that may or may not be fragile or highly sensitive) that will be used for density determination, consolidation, permeability testing or shear strength testing with or without stress-strain properties and volume change measurements (see Note 3). In addition, dy...
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1.1 These practices cover methods for project/cruise reporting, and handling, transporting and storing soft cohesive intact marine soil. Procedures for preparing soil specimens for triaxial strength, and consolidation testing are also presented.  
1.2 These practices may include the handling and transporting of sediment specimens contaminated with hazardous materials and samples subject to quarantine regulations.  
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are provided for information only and are not considered standard. Reporting of test results in units other than SI shall not be regarded as nonconformance with this standard.  
1.4 These practices offer a set of instructions for performing one or more specific operations. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of these practices may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project’s many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.  
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. Specific precautionary statements are given in Sections 1, 2 and 7.  
1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendat...

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ASTM
ASTM D4630-19(Test Method)
Standard Test Method for Determining Transmissivity and Storage Coefficient of Low-Permeability Rocks by In Situ Measurements Using the Constant Head Injection Test

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE
5.1 Test Method—The constant pressure injection test method is used to determine the transmissivity and storativity of low-permeability formations surrounding packed-off intervals. Advantages of the method are: (1) it avoids the effect of well-bore storage, (2) it may be employed over a wide range of rock mass permeabilities, and (3) it is considerably shorter in duration than the conventional pump and slug tests used in more permeable rocks.  
5.2 Analysis—The transient water flow rate data obtained using the suggested test method are evaluated by the curve-matching technique described by Jacob and Lohman (1)4 and extended to analysis of single fractures by Doe et al. (2). If the water flow rate attains steady state, it may be used to calculate the transmissivity of the test interval (3).  
Note 2: The quality of the result produced by this standard is dependent on the competence of the personnel performing it, and the suitability of the equipment and facilities used. Agencies that meet the criteria of Practice D3740 are generally considered capable of competent and objective testing/sampling/inspection/etc. Users of this standard are cautioned that compliance with Practice D3740 does not in itself assure reliable results. Reliable results depend on many factors; Practice D3740 provides a means of evaluating some of those factors.
Note 3: The function of wells in any unconfined setting in a fractured terrain might make the determination of k problematic because the wells might only intersect tributary or subsidiary channels or conduits. The problems determining the k of a channel or conduit notwithstanding, the partial penetration of tributary channels may make determination of a meaningful number difficult. If plots of k in carbonates and other fractured settings are made and compared, they may show no indication that there are conduits or channels present, except when with the lowest probability one maybe intersected by a borehole and can be verified, such pr...
SCOPE
1.1 This test method covers a field procedure for determining the transmissivity and storativity of geological formations having permeabilities lower than 10−3 μm2  (1 millidarcy) using constant head injection.  
1.2 The transmissivity and storativity values determined by this test method provide a good approximation of the capacity of the zone of interest to transmit water, if the test intervals are representative of the entire zone and the surrounding rock is fully water-saturated.  
1.3 Units—The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard. Reporting of test results in units other than SI shall not be regarded as nonconformance with this standard.  
Note 1: Unit Conversions—The permeability of a formation is often expressed in terms of the unit darcy (non-SI). A porous medium has a permeability of 1 Darcy when a fluid of viscosity 1 cp (1 mPa·s) flows through it at a rate of 1 cm3/s (10–6 m3/s)/1 cm2 (10–4 m2) cross-sectional area at a pressure differential of 1 atm (101.4 kPa)/1 cm (10 mm) of length. One Darcy corresponds to 0.987 μm2. For water as the flowing fluid at 20°C, a hydraulic conductivity of 9.66 μm/s corresponds to a permeability of 1 Darcy. Permeabilities may also be expressed as millidarcy (md), which is not an SI unit.  
1.4 All observed and calculated values shall conform to the guidelines for significant digits and rounding established in Practice D6026.  
1.4.1 The procedures used to specify how data are collected/recorded or calculated, in this standard are regarded as the industry standard. In addition, they are representative of the significant digits that generally should be retained. The procedures used do not consider material variation, purpose for obtaining the data, special purpose studies, or any considerations for the user’s objectives; and it is common practice to increase or reduce significant digits of repor...

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