ASTM E2299-13(2021)

This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
Designation: E2299 − 13 (Reapproved 2021)
Standard Guide for
Sensory Evaluation of Products by Children and Minors
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E2299; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope Development of International Standards, Guides and Recom-
mendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical
1.1 This guide provides a framework for understanding the
Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
issues relating to conducting sensory and market research
studies with children. It recommends and provides examples
2. Referenced Documents
for developing ethical, safe, and valid testing methods. It
2.1 ASTM Standards:
focuses specifically on the concerns relevant to testing with
E253 Terminology Relating to Sensory Evaluation of Mate-
children from birth through preadolescence. The guide as-
rials and Products
sumes that minors older than 15 years of age are generally
E1958 Guide for Sensory Claim Substantiation
capable of performing sensory tests like adults, and therefore,
2.2 ASTM Publications:
all standard procedures used with adult subjects apply.The one
STP 758 Guidelines for the Selection and Training of Sen-
exception, however, is legal consent where parental/legal
sory Panel Members
guardian permission should be obtained for anyone under 18
years of age.
3. Summary of Guide—Specific Applications for Testing
1.2 This guide will take into account the wide range of With Children
children’s physical, emotional, and cognitive levels of devel-
3.1 The primary use of children in sensory studies is to
opment. It will prove useful for developing tasks that are
measure the acceptability of foods, beverages, pharmaceutical
understandable to children. It recommends alternative modes
colors and flavors, and other products designed to be marketed
for children to communicate their opinions or perceptions back
to, consumed by, or used by children.
to the researcher, such as appropriate scales and measures.
3.2 In this sense, they answer many of the same questions
1.3 The ethical standard presented in this document should
posed by affective sensory tests with adults. Children are used
be viewed as a minimum requirement for testing with minors.
to measure overall acceptance, liking, or preference between
Thesafetyandprotectionofchildrenasrespondents,aswellas
samples. The resulting information can be used to aid in
an attitude of respect for the value of their input should be of
formulationchangesortochoosebetweenalternativeproducts.
primary concern to the researcher.
3.3 Sensory testing with children can also be used to
1.4 The considerations raised in this document may also be
identifyuniquecharacteristicsorfunctionsofproducts,suchas
useful when testing with the elderly or with adults who have
the effectiveness of childproof safety caps. Other applications
developmental handicaps.
include advertising research or identification of unfilled needs
1.5 This document is not intended to be a complete descrip- orwantsaspartoftheproductdevelopmentprocess(seeGuide
tion of reliable sensory testing techniques and methodologies. E1958).
It focuses instead on special considerations for the specific
3.4 Finally, some organizations are using children for basic
applicationofsensorytechniqueswhentestingwithchildren.It
research into the effectiveness of different scaling methods or
assumes knowledge of basic sensory and statistical analysis
sensory testing methodologies with children of varying ages.
techniques.
4. Significance and Use
1.6 This international standard was developed in accor-
dance with internationally recognized principles on standard-
4.1 It is necessary and useful to test with children because
ization established in the Decision on Principles for the
they represent the real end-users for many products. Some
1 2
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E18 on Sensory For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
Evaluation and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E18.05 on Sensory contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
Applications--General. Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
Current edition approved April 15, 2021. Published May 2021. Originally the ASTM website.
approved in 2003. Last previous edition approved in 2013 as E2299 – 13. DOI: Available fromASTM International Headquarters, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO
10.1520/E2299-13R21. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States
E2299 − 13 (2021)
products are developed specifically for children, and some are consumption,frequencyanddurationofuse,lengthofattention
dual-purposeproductsthatareintendedforadultsandchildren. span, or the condition of the product before, during and after
Examples include: baby foods, diapers, ready-to-eat cereal, use. In addition, an adult can fill out a simple questionnaire
juices, food or lunch kits, candy, toys, vitamins and other with facial scales as a way to mimic the child’s response and
pharmaceuticals, music and videos, interactive learning tools, aid in interpretation.
and packaging.
5.2.2 Cautions:
5.2.2.1 Due to the limited language, attention span, and
4.2 Children have influence over adults’ purchase decisions
motor skills, the length of the testing session and number of
and are responsible for many or some of their own purchase
products evaluated must be limited. Input from the parent/
decisions.
primary caregiver as to the amount and length of exposure is
4.3 Creating a product for children requires input from
critical. Consideration may be given to exposing the caregiver
children because their wants and needs differ from those of
totheproductspriortothetestasawaytoscreenandeliminate
adults. For example, they may differ from adults in preferences
a large number of samples. This technique also allows the
orsensoryacuity,orboth,forsweetness,saltiness,carbonation,
caregiver to increase their comfort level about exposing their
and texture. It is impossible to predict the nature of these
child to the product.
differences without actual input from the intended target
5.2.2.2 Caution should be used when the caregiver is asked
audience.
to make a subjective judgement for the young child. Primary
caregivers, especially parents, may respond from personal
5. Test Methods
preferences, interpreting for the child their own personal
5.1 Skill Development and Appropriate Testing:
opinion. At other times, primary caregivers or parents may
5.1.1 Testing with children requires special consideration of
unknowingly establish a pattern of responses that they believe
their language development, motor skills, and social and
would present their child in a positive manner to the evaluator.
psychological development. Every child is unique, and there is
An option to reduce potential biases includes providing an
great variation within and across age groups. In developing
environment that fosters honest responses (for example, field-
appropriate test methodologies for children, it is more impor-
ing through a third party agency or non-company identified
tant to consider individual skill development than chronologi-
facility, indicating the importance of the data, or how the data
cal age. Table 1 provides a general guideline for expectations
will be used, or both). Another option is to have the parent/
of skill level and appropriate evaluation techniques for each
primary caregiver feed the child first, record the child’s
age group. For each age group, there is corresponding text
response and then the parent/primary caregiver may be in-
discussing special testing considerations.
structed to taste and record their own response.
5.1.2 The researcher should keep in mind that there are
5.2.2.3 Whether the observer is the primary caregiver, an
many children in each age grouping who will fall below or
experimenter or trained evaluator, adult interpretation of ob-
abovetheseskilllevels.Itistheresponsibilityoftheresearcher
servational responses are subjective and may be affected by
to verify the ability of the children to complete the task as
factors unrelated to the product in question. For example,
planned or to modify it as required to meet the needs of the
physical discomfort on the part of the child, such as tiredness
children selected for testing. For example, while some second
or illness, may result in behaviors such as refusing to eat or
grade children may be able to read and understand test
pushing products away with hands. An unbiased observer or
instructions, others will need assistance with that task.
videotaping the session, or both, in conjunction with parental/
5.2 Infants(Birthto18Months)andToddlers(18Monthsto primarycaregiverinputcanaidincaseswhereinterpretationof
a response is unclear. Multiple exposures and repeated evalu-
3 Years):
ations may also be helpful.
5.2.1 Recommended Evaluation Techniques and Types of
Information:
5.3 Pre-school (Age 3 to 5 Years Old):
5.2.1.1 Information may be gathered from behavioral
5.3.1 Recommended Evaluation Techniques and Types of
observations, diaries, or records from an adult experimenter
Information:
who may be a trained evaluator, or the child’s primary
5.3.1.1 Behavioral observations and the diaries used with
caregiver. It is the adult who interprets infant or toddler
infants and toddlers are also appropriate with children 3 to
responses. With toddlers, some verbal responses may also be
5 years old. In addition, preschool children can begin using
obtained. When the primary caregiver is involved, having an
verbal skills to communicate their responses about the prod-
unbiased observer watch the interaction between the child and
ucts. One-on-one interviews in the presence of a primary
adult is beneficial. Video taping the test allows greater flex-
caregiver, paired comparisons, or limited use of sorting and
ibility and opportunity for additional review.
matching techniques using pictures are appropriate.
5.2.1.2 Information may include observations recorded
5.3.1.2 Keeping in mind individual differences, many chil-
before, during, or after product use in either a clinical envi-
dren in this age group can perform simple tasks that provide
ronment or more natural usage situation (such as the home or
quantitative results. Suggested quantitative methods for pre-
a group child care environment). Behavioral observations may
school children include using facial scales to measure liking,
include hand and eye movement, facial expressions, time spent
paired preference, and preference ranking techniques.
playing, amount and time of consumption, or interaction with
the product. Diaries or records can be used to track intake or 5.3.2 Cautions:
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A
TABLE 1 Summary of Skills and Behaviors of Children and Teens
Beginning Readers Pre-teen Teenage
Infant Toddler Pre-school
Skill/Behavior 5to8 Years 8to12 Years 12 to 15 Years
Birth to 18 Months 18 Months to 3 Years 3to5 Years
nd nd th th th
Kindergarten-2 Grade 2 Grade-6 Grade 6 Grade-12 Grade
Language—Verbal, Reading/ Pre-verbal. Rely on facial Beginning to vocalize, adult Early language development. Moderately developed verbal Increasingly verbal—self- Generally strong language
Written Language, expressions. Cannot read. interpretation still required. Can observe facial and vocabulary skills; expression improves. and vocabulary skills.
Vocabulary Cannot write. Use sounds, Cannot read. Cannot write. expressions, respond to cognitive skills increase. Reading and written Reading and written
very few words. Early word usage questions and pictures. Early reading and writing language skills increase language skills continue to
developing. Generally reading and writing skills vary greatly at this age. rapidly and are sufficient for increase. Adult level in most
skills are not present. Adult assistance is advised. most self-administered tasks respects.
at the upper limits of this age
group.
Attention Span Gauged by eye contact and Gauged by eye contact or Limited, but increasing. Limited by understanding of Attention span is increasing, Similar to adults,
bodily movement. Bright involvement with task, bodily Bright colors, movement are task and interest level, but holding interest is critical involvement and interest
colors, sound, and movement. Bright colors, effective. challenge. Limit tasks to and sometimes difficult. subject to peer pressure.
movements capture sound, and movements <15 min. Taking tests is a familiar
attention. capture attention. activity.
Reasoning Limited to pain and pleasure. Limited, but concept of “no” Limited, but beginning to be Developing with increased Full ability for understanding Reasoning skills are fully
becoming a factor. Definite able to verbalize what is learning, cause/effect and reasoning, capable of developed and similar to
preferences begin to liked and what is not. concepts. decision making. adults.
emerge.
Decision Making Do not make complex Do not make complex Limited, but concepts of what Ability to decide is Capable of complex Fully capable of adult
decisions. decisions, but “yes”/“no” can is liked and what is not increasing, but influence of decisions, peer influences a decision processes, subject
be decisive. Ability to choose strengthen. Able to choose adult approval is evident. factor. to peer influences.
begins. one thing over another.
Understanding Scales Do not understand scales. Do not understand scales. Understanding of simple Scale understanding Capable of understanding Similar to adults.
scales beginning, sorting or increasing, simple is best, scaling concepts with
identification tasks more use easy vocabulary. adequate instruction.
effective.
Motor Skills Possess some gross motor Rapid gains in gross motor Development of gross and Gross motor skills Hand to eye and other fine Similar to adults.
skills, no fine motor skills skills, fine motor skills still fine motor skills increasing. developed, fine skills motor skills developed.
limited. becoming more refined.
Recommended Evaluation Behavioral Observations Previous, plus: Paired Previous, plus: Previous, plus more abstract Capable of all adult
Techniques Diaries Comparison Simple attribute ratings reasoning tasks. evaluation techniques.
Consumption or duration measurements Sorting and Matching Liking scales—pictorial (such Hedonic scales.
Limited Preference as star scale) or simple word Simple attribute scaling and
Ranking scales. ratings.
One-on-one interviews Group discussions
Concept testing
Adult Involvement Primary Caregiver Experimenter or Interviewer. Generally able to handle self- Adult participation not
Trained Observer administered tasks. required, unless appropriate
Experimenter to evaluation technique.
A
These chronological ages are rough guidelines; a child’s development age may not be the same as his/her chronological age. Researchers should pilot their test procedure with several respondents at the youngest
age target to ensure that the child can do the required task and meaningful data can be collected.

E2299 − 13 (2021)
5.3.2.1 Children 3 to 5 years old exhibit a wide range of if they like the “taste” of a product, but not its “flavor.” They
developmental skills.This age group has relatively limited fine can respond to “how it feels in your mouth,” but not to
motor skills, attention span, verbal and cognitive skills. These “texture.” Simple vocabulary is necessary. Adult intervention
characteristics, combined with possible emotional dependence, may be required for clarification of test instructions or assis-
require that testing protocols be kept simple and non- tance with reading tasks, but the researcher must be aware of
threatening. potential parental influence or a desire on the part of the child
to please the adult interviewer.
5.3.2.2 Careful consideration must be given to testing loca-
tion. Suggested options include testing in central location, 5.4.2.2 At this age, most children can participate in short
educational, play or social settings. Familiar settings such as interviews without the presence of their parents/primary care-
preschools, churches, synagogues, or home settings may be givers.Forsomechildren,emotionalmaturityandshynessmay
ideal. Both controlled and relaxed environments offer advan- interfere with their ability to adequately complete the task and
tages and disadvantages that the researcher must consider. may result in a complete lack of response. The researcher is
Generally, a relaxed atmosphere encourages more typical faced with a decision on how to handle children who have
behavior when testing products with young children than a difficulties, and must determine whether or not their data
clinical setting, although a controlled setting may sometimes shouldbeeliminated,orifthechildshouldbereplacedthrough
be necessary for test specific reasons. additional recruiting.
5.3.2.3 Some children in this age group are uncomfortable 5.4.2.3 As mentioned with the previous age groups, sim-
with unfamiliar adults.Asuggestion to ease their apprehension plicity is key. The researcher who keeps the task simple and
may be to include a warm-up period to introduce the child to gives clear, concise verbal directions will improve the likeli-
the researcher and task in the presence of their parents/primary hood of a successful test.
caregivers.
5.5 Pre-Teen (8 to 12 Years Old):
5.4 Beginning Readers (Approximately 5 to 8 Years Old):
5.5.1 Recommended Evaluation Techniques and Types of
5.4.1 Recommended Evaluation Techniques and Types of
Information:
Information:
5.5.1.1 Children in this age group should be capable of
5.4.1.1 Children in this age group should be capable of completing any tasks that are used for testing with younger
completing any tasks that are used for testing with younger
children. Many children in this age group are also able to
children. This age group usually has moderately developed complete more challenging tasks and understand increasingly
verbal skills, an expanding vocabulary, increased cognitive
complex wording, which allows for greater flexibility in
abilities,andincreasedfinemotorskills.Scaleunderstandingis questionnairedesign.Self-administeredtestsareusuallyappro-
increasing, but limited word scales, facial scales, and paired
priate for this age group. However, diversity in skill level can
preference are appropriate. be especially pronounced in this age category. The researcher
5.4.1.2 Althoughtheearlyreaders’abilitytomakedecisions must continuously be aware of differences in skill levels, and
are increasing, choices should be limited and testing tasks be prepared for some children in this group to overlap with the
early reader skill level. Sometimes, even basic reading skills
should be simplistic. Appropriate techniques include using
one-on-one interviews, short affective tests, or brief group are not fully developed until 11 to 12 years of age, and
therefore, some children may require adult assistance in order
discussions to accommodate the limited attention spans inher-
ent to this age group. to read the questionnaire or to complete self-administered
questionnaires.
5.4.1.3 Somechildreninthisgrouparebetterabletoconvey
more details about their likes and dislikes, preference ratings, 5.5.1.2 Quantitative techniques that are effective for this
product liking, and acceptance decisions than their younger group are paired comparison or paired preference choices,
ranking tasks, basic attribute and JAR scales (for example,
counterparts, but not all have that capability. At this stage,
since everything they do is so dependent on skill level, very sweet), and hedonic scaling (facial expressions may be more
suitable than word anchors for the younger portion of the age
simpletasksyieldthebestopportunitiesforsuccess.Additional
life experience and exposure to product advertising can lead to group) (see Terminology E253 for definitions of terms).
a better understanding of impressions about products and the One-on-one interviews are still appropriate for this age group.
developmentofmorepersonalpreferences.Childreninthisage At this age, children can be expected to participate in short
group can certainly identify what they like, but not necessarily interviews without the presence of their parents/primary care-
why they like it. Many do not understand the difference givers. Responses to open-ended questions may be quite
between sweet and sour, thick and thin, etc. Some children in limited, and some younger children in this group may have
this group, however, are able to understand and use just-about- difficulty with answering any open-ended questions, except in
right (JAR) scales, but only with very simple vocabulary. an interview format.
5.5.1.3 Qualitative techniques such as focus group discus-
5.4.2 Cautions:
sions are useful with this age group to address qualitative
5.4.2.1 Scale understanding and use is still limited for this
objectives, including concept testing. Depending on the testing
group. Facial scales or one-on-one interviews are likely to be
situation, consider testing older children in this age group
more effective than word-only scales that may not be com-
separately by gender.
pletely understood. Simple, basic vocabulary is key. At best,
children in this group can indicate if they like “how something 5.5.1.4 In general, this age group is increasingly able to
looks,” but not if they like its “appearance.” They can indicate handle abstract ideas and complex decisions. Children in this
E2299 − 13 (2021)
age group have definitive ideas about their likes and dislikes, 6.2 Criteria for Using Children as Subjects—Recruitment
which may be quite different from adults. As verbal skills and Screeners:
increase, they can provide increasingly informative descrip-
6.2.1 Parental/legal guardian consent is strongly
tions about their impressions of products.
recommended, and may be required by law. Consult your legal
5.5.2 Cautions:
professional for additional guidance regarding parental/legal
5.5.2.1 At this stage in development, interactions between
guardian consent (Fig. 1). In addition, having the participating
boys and girls have increasing potential to interfere with
child assent to testing, while non-binding, may help to impress
concentration and attention to the task at hand. To aid in
the child with the importance of his/her participation.
obtainingclearlyindividualresponsesandtoavoidthebiasthat
6.2.2 Children can be recruited from a wide variety of
comes with peer interaction, it may be necessary to separate
sources, with advantages and disadvantages to each (see case
children who are friends. This usually applies when testing in
studies for examples of various recruitment scenarios). Over-
a group setting such as school or camp. This is similar to the
recruiting is helpful with children as well as adults.
concerns previously expressed regarding parent/primary
Additionally, the behavior of the potential participants may be
caregiver-child interactions, or problems encountered when
observed in the waiting room to eliminate those who may be
testingwithadultswhoareacquainted.Thedesireandpressure
too shy, nonverbal, or disruptive.
to agree with one’s peer group can be a powerful influence that
6.2.3 The number of children for the study will vary based
may bias sensory test results, and good sensory practice
on the objective, the test design, and the scope of information
dictates that the sensory professional anticipate potential
desired, in the same way as testing with adults. When testing
sources of bias and protect against them as much as possible in
with children, recruiting a somewhat larger assessor base is
structuring the test.
recommended because of the potential for unusable data, or
5.6 Teen (12 to 15 Years):
dismissal of children prior to the study due to variation in
5.6.1 Recommended Evaluation Techniques:
children’s ability to respond because of basic skill level.
5.6.1.1 Teens are capable of completing all types of tests
6.2.4 Many youth groups, sports groups, community-based
described for preteens. In addition, they are able to complete
groups, etc. may be a source of children for testing. Whenever
more complex questionnaires requiring multiple decisions.
possible, it is recommended that children from more than one
Their abilities are similar to those of adults, and they are able
groupberecruited.Thiswillhelptheresearcheravoidpotential
to participate in discrimination testing if they are trained to
biasesduetohomogeneityofchildrenintermsofethnicorigin,
perform the task.
religion, parent’s social background, etc.
5.6.1.2 Evaluators between 12 and 15 years of age are
6.2.5 Standard techniques such as shopping mall recruiting,
increasingly verbal and can provide detailed descriptions of
newspaper advertising, and organizational recruiting are also
their likes and dislikes of products, as well as the reasons for
used.
those attitudes. JAR scales should pose no difficulty as long as
the attributes in question are understood. Teens are able to use
6.2.6 Regardless of the source of recruiting, screening is
attribute scales and provide intensity ratings for product necessary to obtain the proper sample of children to meet the
attributes.
test objective. Screeners should be administered first to the
5.6.2 Cautions—Consider the cautions described in 5.5.2.1. parent/primary caregiver, and then to the child participating,
Again, it is important to emphasize that during group
depending on their age. While skill level is an important factor
discussions, the researcher should consider separating males
in all aspects of sensory testing with children, skill level is not
and females in order to limit distractions. Peer influence is
the most important factor during screening.The test design can
important to teens and should be considered to assure unbiased
be adapted to be appropriate for the ability of your desired
responses.
target audience. Current usage of the product within the
category is often a criterion for selection of participants, as
6. Procedures—Test Design and Protocol
well as the age and gender of the audience for whom the
product is intended. In the case of new products, a willingness
6.1 Test Types:
to try the product or an interest in the concept may be the most
6.1.1 The standard formats used when testing with adults
appropriate criterion.
are also used with children, for example, home use, or central
6.2.7 When determining secondary screening qualifications,
location tests, with modifications for the special circumstances
developmental factors such as comprehension and verbal
that arise with children as subjects. Pretesting is recommended
communication skills must be considered. With young
to determine the appropriate ratio of adults or administrators to
children, visual response techniques are sometimes employed
children necessary for effective execution of the test. In
for screening. Verbal screening is suggested for children up to
addition, pretesting is necessary to determine the appropriate-
ness of the questionnaire and the test method being used. age 7 or 8, because it has been observed that younger children
may have difficulty completing a written questionnaire without
6.1.2 Computers are used effectively with children, depend-
ing on their experience and exposure. When using computers, assistance. The researcher may find it necessary to recruit a
category user group as an initial step, and follow up with
the basics regarding skill-appropriate questionnaire design
should be applied, using pictures and scales appropriate to additional screening to accommodate those children who have
not yet developed the skill set necessary to complete the task
children. When conducting tests outside the home, facilities
should be structured to be user-friendly and safe for children. required.
E2299 − 13 (2021)
FIG. 1 Example of Informed Consent Form Used for Testing With Children
6.2.8 Consideration of allergies is especially important with loose teeth, or for teens with braces. Please consult your legal
children, making informed parental/legal guardian consent a department and refer to Section 8, Legal and Safety Issues, for
necessity for participation. In most cases, it is prudent to additional screening considerations.
eliminate children that have any allergies to food, skin or
6.3 Number of Subjects—In a Central Location Test, when
fragrance ingredients. However, there may be cases where a
the number of children required is large, testing with smaller
child with an allergy may be important to the product being
subgroups can make the task easier to manage. The number of
tested.Anexampleisasoybutterthatisusedasasubstitutefor
administratorspresentshouldbeproportionaltothecomplexity
peanut butter, where children with peanut allergies are re-
of the task and taking into consideration the age of children in
cruited so they can evaluate this product. In this case, a list of
the study.
ingredients contained in the test products must be provided for
6.4 Description of the Task:
informed parental/legal guardian consent. It may be necessary
to note that products are manufactured in a facility that also 6.4.1 Children can participate in sensory tests concerning
processes other potential allergens. Consult your legal profes- taste, visual appeal, or texture of food, for personal care
sional for additional guidance and risk assessment regarding products and toys, or pharmaceutical products. Visual tests of
evaluation of food or personal care products by children with a product’s eye appeal are also effective with children. Visual
allergies. tests are often used with packaging, advertising issues, or with
6.2.9 Creating a safe testing environment must be a primary items such as toys. Home-use tests or one-on-one studies are
consideration, even if it requires planning for physical limita- useful for testing non food items such as disposable diapers.
tions at a given developmental stage, such as testing very In-home testing may also be appropriate when the child is
sticky or chewy products with young children that may have intended to be involved with the actual use of the product over
E2299 − 13 (2021)
time, such as making their own peanut butter and jelly ing an emotion expressed by a face to their reaction to a
sandwiches, or using ready-to-eat cereals on multiple occa- product may require more abstract thinking than a response on
sions. a verbal scale.Another potential distraction for children is that
6.4.2 Depending on their skill level, children are capable of the faces may not reflect the child’s racial or ethnic identity
performing a variety of tasks. They can tell the researcher if a and that the meaning of facial expressions is far from universal
product is liked or disliked, and in some cases to what degree across culture. For these reasons, facial scales are not recom-
it is liked or disliked. They can rank products in order of their mended until more positive evidence is available that supports
preference, and some are capable of answering simple and their use.
well-defined attribute questions. Use of a trained interviewer is 6.6.1.1 For children ages 3 to 5, choice questions are best.
essential with young children, and with older children, a To obtain liking, you can first ask the child if they feel the
trained interviewer allows a means of assessing how well the product is good or bad. Depending on their response, they are
child understands the questions being asked. In a self- then asked if the sample is “really good” (really bad) or “just
administered test, the child should be able to comprehend the a little good” (just a little bad). If in the first choice the child is
questions being asked. Certain inherent biases exist when not able to specify good or bad, their response is coded as
products are tested at home. Therefore, care should be exer- neither, and the subsequent questions are not asked.
cised when determining the appropriateness for home-use tests 6.6.1.2 Use of Intensity and JAR Scales—Children ages 8
that can be influenced by parents/primary caregivers. and higher are capable of using intensity scales. Since children
in consumer studies often receive only a brief orientation to
6.5 Time to Complete Task:
their rating task, it is important that the attribute whose
6.5.1 The key to successful testing with children is to keep
intensity they are scaling be easy to understand; such
the task short and to the point and to do the same with the
comprehension, if in doubt, should be verified by pre-testing
length of the test session. Expectations should be set at the
the questionnaire. Children can easily perform ratings of
onset of the study. The time required for task completion is
appearance, including size or visual amount. Other attributes,
largely dependent on the test design, objective, and execution
such as sweetness or hardness (of food products), are also easy
plan. Taste tests should be kept short due to fatigue, but other
for children to understand. In the case of more complex flavor
tasks can be longer if evaluative tools are entertaining. It is
or texture characteristics, the assumption that children under-
essential to have the task completed before the child loses
stand the meaning of the attribute is likely not warranted.
interest, and attention wanders. If there are breaks between
6.6.1.3 Just-about-right scales used with children usually
samples, provide activity books with word games for children
take the form of a three-point scale (not enough, just right, too
to help occupy their time.
much). JAR scales can give meaningful results with children,
6.6 Questionnaires:
althoughasinthecaseofintensityscales,carefulconsideration
6.6.1 Depending on the age and developmental level of the
must be given to the choice of attribute.Appearance attributes,
children being tested, hedonic scales, star scales, intensity
basic tastes such as sweetness or sourness, and simple food
scales, and just about right scales have been used successfully.
texture attributes may be appropriate for this age.
Multiple point children’s language hedonic scales (that is,
6.6.2 Table 2 and Fig. 2 give an example of scales. Scale
super good—super bad) may be used with ages 6 to 12, as can
terminology needs to be validated for appropriateness to the
traditional multiple point hedonic scale, provided all the
children being tested. The questionnaire should be pretested to
children can read or, more importantly, can understand the
be sure the questions are understandable, the instructions can
4,5
meaning of words, or both. Prior to testing, an appropriate
be followed, and the tasks can be completed independently.
orientation is important to ensure that children have an
Pretesting also gives a sense of the average length of time
understanding of the scale and the rating task. Facial scales,
needed for children to complete the testing tasks. It is recom-
which use cartoon-like faces to express like and dislike and
mended that a warm-up exercise be used to familiarize the
were developed for those with limited reading nor comprehen-
children with the scale(s) and give them confidence before
sion skills. They have been in use for a long time when testing
proceeding with the actual product evaluation.
with children. However, new cultural issues have been brought
6.6.3 When using self-administered questionnaires rather
to light that may make this scale less optimal and facial scales
than one-on-one interviewing techniques, the questionnaire
have not been shown to provide advantages over verbal scales
should be uncluttered, simple, and easy to read. Large type
when used in consumer research. On the contrary, facial scales
fonts and plenty of white space, as well as brief, clear
introduce their own complications. For example, children may
instructions may help clarify the task of answering questions
respond by selecting a “happy” face because they like that face
without adult assistance. Because of possible limitations with
ratherthanbecauseitrepresentstheiropinionabouttheproduct
regard to their experience level, precautions should be used in
they are evaluating. For children, the cognitive task of match-
terms of selection of attributes to be measured. Simplicity is
the rule.
Popper, R. and Kroll, J. J., “Issues and Viewpoints: Conducting Sensory
6.7 Incentives—The incentives offered vary as much as the
Research with Children,” Journal of Sensory Studies, Vol 20, 2005, pp. 75–87.
sourcesofchildrenforsensorytesting.Giftcertificatesforboth
Spaeth, E. E., Chambers, E., IV, and Schwenke, J. R., “A Comparison of
Acceptability Scaling Methods for Use with Children,” Product Testing with
Consumers for Research Guidance: Special Consumer Groups, Second Volume. Cooper, H. R., Holway, A., and Arsan, M. “Cross Cultural Research—Should
ASTM STP 1155, Wu, L. S. and Gelinas, A. D., Eds., ASTM International, 1992, Stimuli be Psychologically Pure or Culturally Relevant?” Marketing Research
pp. 65–77. Today, Vol 26, No. 1, 1998, pp. 67–72.
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TABLE 2 Examples of Scales for Testing With Children
Maybe good
Super good Really good Good Just a little good Just a little bad Bad Really bad Super bad
or maybe bad
Like Like Neither like Dislike Dislike very Dislike
Like very much Like slightly Dislike slightly
extremely moderately nor dislike moderately much extremely
Neither like
Like a lot Like a little Dislike a little Dislike a lot
nor dislike
Maybe good
Super good Really good Good Bad Really bad Super bad
or maybe bad
Needs to be Needs to be A little too
Just right Way too much
way stronger a little stronger much
Just about
Not enough Too much
right
FIG. 2 Example of Non-verbal Scale Used for Testing With Children
the children and their parents/primary caregivers, money for labor intensive than with adult testing. The researcher should
theorganizationorschool,andcashareoftenused.Otherideas anticipate interaction between children and plan appropriate
include tickets to movies, sporting events, or coupons. Value intervention in order to minimize potential bias.
andnatureofincentivesshouldbebasedontheamountoftime
6.9 AdultInvolvement—The age of the children being tested
required of the child/primary caregiver, effort to recruit kids,
and the test objective are important considerations when
and age of child. Incentives should be explained to parents/
deciding on the extent of adult involvement. Direct involve-
legal guardians prior to testing.
ment of the primary caregiver is suggested for children under
6.8 Location—The actual location of the test depends on the
the age of five (5). Often, parents/primary caregivers are in
study design or objective. If central location testing is
attendance but are given their own separate tasks in order to
appropriate, the test site must be selected to meet the require-
minimize their influence on their child’s responses. In some
ments of the study, and to match the testing objective to the
cases, parental/primary caregiver involvement is necessary and
respondent’sneeds.Forexample,tablesmaybeloweredtosuit
appropriate.Inhome-usesituations,parents/primarycaregivers
the respondents. Tables should be set up so children are not
are typically involved in administering the test and collecting
facing each other during the testing. Age appropriate pictures
the data. If a child age five (5) or older is unable to separate
may enhance a sterile environment as long as they are not too
from the primary caregiver, then the test can proceed with the
distracting. Picnic style or beanbag chairs lend themselves to
primary caregiver in the room. If requested, it is acceptable to
certain test situations. Schools, churches, research facilities,
let the primary caregiver view unobtrusively the activities of
and state fairs have been used with success. Safety issues must
the child.
always be considered, especially with young children. Ad-
equate supervision is necessary at all times and will be more 6.10 Permission:
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6.10.1 Regardless of the extent or nature of the task, 6.6.2).As long as the children tested have sufficient familiarity
parental/legal guardian consent is required. It is prudent to with the scale used, the end result will be data that are more
protect the child, yourself, and those you represent as a reliable. (See Table 2 for examples of scales.)
researcher.
7. Interference—Adult/Child Interaction
TABLE 3 Informed Consent Form
7.1 Test Administrator (May Include Interviewer,
This consent form is being presented to you, because after a discussion about
Moderator, or Monitor):
this research study and being verbally informed, you are allowing your child to
7.1.1 Issues:
participate in this research study. Participation in this study is completely
voluntary and done at your own risk, and if you or your child refuses to
7.1.1.1 Special attention should be given when selecting
participate or decide to withdraw from this study at any time, you may do so
administrator(s) for conducting sensory studies with children.
without penalty or loss of any benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. If
Among the considerations should be the personal style of the
your child has any food allergies or food sensitivities, we require that your child
not participate in the study. By signing below, you are confirming that your child
administrative staff. The staff should be child-oriented, expe-
does not have a food allergy, sensitivity or other dietary restriction. (For
rienced with children and their level of conversation. Previous
example: peanuts, almonds, walnuts, pecans, milk and/or dairy products, eggs,
experience with the age group involved increases the staff’s
soy, fish, shellfish, grains, sulfating agents, etc.) A listing of all ingredients
contained in the products your child will taste is available upon request. The
comfort level when working with children. The staff must also
information gathered from this study will be combined and individual results will
be able to maintain control to ensure the testing environment is
not be released. In addition, you agree to keep the products and associated
conducive to testing. The number of adults required for test
information from this study completely confidential and you agree that all ideas,
discoveries, concepts and other information developed or derived from you or
administration increases as the complexity of the task the child
your child due to their participation in this research study.
is asked to complete increases. The administrator should
provideadegreeofemotionalsupportandmaketheexperience
By signing below, you confirm that you have read and understood the
statements above and agree for your child’s participation in this research study.
as pleasant as possible for the child.
7.1.1.2 Training or experience with the appropriate age
Printed Name of Child group will allow test administrators to speak in familiar terms
with the children, including slang expressions. They should be
Printed Name of Parent/Guardian Relationship to Child
able to quickly rephrase any questions that are not clear.
Signature of Parent/Guardian Date Administrators should be educated in the nonverbal body
language and facial cues of children, and they should also be
aware of their unconscious feedback to the participants and its
6.10.2 If products are ingested or topically applied, parents/
influence on testing results.
legal guardians must be informed of the ingredients which
7.1.1.3 Whenthetestdesigncallsforone-on-oneinterviews
“may or may not” be present in the samples. Parental/legal
with young children, consideration should be given to the
guardian permission slips must include: (1) permission to test,
physical attributes of the interviewers in an attempt to avoid
(2) consent for dispensation of compensation to the school or
those who may intimidate the children. It is suggested that
organization if appropriate, and (3) verification
...