ISO/IEC TR 16088:2025

Technical
Report
ISO/IEC TR 16088
First edition
Information technology —
2025-08
Computer graphics, image
processing and environmental
representation — Constructs for
visual positioning systems in mixed
and augmented reality (MAR)
Technologies de l'information — Infographie, traitement de
l'image et représentation des données environnementales —
Constructions pour les systèmes de positionnement visuel en
réalité mixte et augmentée
Reference number
© ISO/IEC 2025
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© ISO/IEC 2025 – All rights reserved
ii
Contents Page
Foreword .iv
Introduction .v
1 Scope . 1
2 Normative references . 1
3 Terms, definitions and abbreviated terms . 1
3.1 Terms and definitions .1
3.2 Abbreviated terms .2
4 Concept: Visual positioning system in mixed and augmented reality . 2
4.1 VPS and MR .2
4.2 System architecture of VPS .4
4.2.1 Image data base and map construction .4
4.2.2 Localization.6
4.2.3 Scene understanding .7
4.2.4 Overall system architecture .8
5 Standardization opportunities . . 9
5.1 Data representation and interoperability among major VPS components .9
5.2 Image/Data set for map and image DB .9
5.2.1 General .9
5.2.2 Images .9
5.2.3 GNSS coordinate (from which the image was taken) .9
5.2.4 Inertial data .9
5.2.5 Camera parameters .9
5.3 Image based 2D/3D map .10
5.4 Pre-existing map .10
5.5 Integrated 2D/3D image based and registered map .10
5.6 Features characterization and descriptor .10
5.7 Image/object characterization and descriptor .10
5.8 Semantics (labels) .10
6 Use cases . 10
6.1 Indoor MAR guidance/service (navigation/advertisement/games/tourism) .10
6.2 Accurate outdoor MAR services (navigation/advertisement/games/tourism) .11
6.3 MAR based tele-assistance . 12

© ISO/IEC 2025 – All rights reserved
iii
Foreword
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This document was prepared by Joint Technical Committee ISO/IEC JTC 1, Information technology,
Subcommittee SC 24, Computer graphics, image processing and environmental data representation.
Any feedback or questions on this document should be directed to the user’s national standards
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© ISO/IEC 2025 – All rights reserved
iv
Introduction
Mixed and augmented reality (MAR) refers to the contents and the underlying technology that can overlay/
insert (or augment) and display information over/in the real world. The augmentation means certain
“virtual” or “artificial” information is spatially registered in a proper position and orientation within
the 3D real world. To realize this “spatial” registration, the MAR system includes a functionality, called
“positioning”, that can recognize and understand the real world in 3D, track the position and orientation of
the user so that the mixed reality scene can be composed and displayed to the user in the right way. When
the positioning function implementation is based primarily on the camera images, it is referred to as the
“Visual” positioning system (VPS).
This document outlines the basic reference MAR architecture, especially the detailed system components for
the VPS and relevant informational constructs. Such a reference model can serve as a basis for discovering
opportunities for future MAR standardization.
The focus is given to the system components and information constructs for image (visual) based scene
recognition and tracking. The document also provides definitions for terms as related to pertaining domains,
and illustrate typical VPS/MAR use cases. Note that the detailed processes or algorithms for different
system components are out of scope.

© ISO/IEC 2025 – All rights reserved
v
Technical Report ISO/IEC TR 16088:2025(en)
Information technology — Computer graphics, image
processing and environmental representation — Constructs
for visual positioning systems in mixed and augmented
reality (MAR)
1 Scope
This document specifies the concept of visual positioning system (VPS) in the context of mixed and
augmented reality (MAR) and describes a reference model for it in terms of the essential system components
and information constructs.
2 Normative references
The following documents are referred to in the text in such a way that some or all of their content constitutes
requirements of this document. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references,
the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
ISO/IEC 18039:2019, Information technology — Computer graphics, image processing and environmental data
representation — Mixed and augmented reality (MAR) reference model
3 Terms, definitions and abbreviated terms
3.1 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, the terms and definitions given in ISO/IEC 18039 and the following apply.
ISO and IEC maintain terminology databases for use in standardization at the following addresses:
— ISO Online browsing platform: available at https:// www .iso .org/ obp
— IEC Electropedia: available at https:// www .electropedia .org/
3.1.1
image based map
map which is created from only images without pre-existing map
3.1.2
image registered map
map annotated with camera images taken from key locations in it
3.1.3
pre-existing metric map
conventional geographical map in standard distance unit and scale
3.1.4
positioning system
mixed and augmented reality subsystem that tracks the location and orientation of the user/client or specific
designated object
© ISO/IEC 2025 – All rights reserved
3.2 Abbreviated terms
AI artificial intelligence
GNSS global navigational satellite system
IMU inertial measurement unit
MAR mixed and augmented reality
SfM structure from motion
SLAM simultaneous localization and mapping
VPS visual positioning system
4 Concept: Visual positioning system in mixed and augmented reality
4.1 VPS and MR
MAR refers to a spatially coordinated combination of media/information components that represent on the
one hand the real world and its objects, and on the other those that are virtual, synthetic and computer
generated. In other words, MAR content overlays/inserts (or augments) and displays information over/in
the real world (see Figure 1). The term overlaying in effect means certain “virtual” or “artificial” information
(e.g. a virtual sofa in Figure 1) is spatially registered and placed in a proper position and orientation in the
real space (e.g. corner of the living room in Figure 1) with respect to the user’s view and display. This makes
MAR distinguished from e.g. a close captioned system where certain information is overlaid on a designated
location on the display screen, and not in relation to the content.
Thus, any MAR system includes, as one of its system functionalities, a way to recognize the target object of
interest which is to be augmented, and at the least be able to track its location and orientation relative to
the user. In this case, the MAR system would offer an “object” centric service – that is, augment a particular
object at the relative location from the user (usually in a small local space). See the example in Figure 1.
a) An object (marker) b) Landmark (corner of the room)
Figure 1 — Small scale MAR system/content
NOTE Small scale MAR system/content in which an object (a) or landmark (b) is detected, recognized and its
position/orientation tracked (with respect to the moving user) on to which a virtual object (e.g. house, sofa) is spatially
registered.
However, the tracking of the target object of interest and the user can be relative to another reference
coordinate system and associated with a larger environment map. This way, the scope of the MAR system
can become much larger (e.g. city scale) with the augmentation based on both object type and its location.

© ISO/IEC 2025 – All rights reserved
Thus, in this case, a method to support tracking and localizing the user with respect to a large/wide
environment is needed. One applicable technology is the GNSS, but it is not sufficiently accurate, does not
operate indoors, nor can it estimate the target orientation.
This is where visual localization comes into play. Visual positioning system (VPS) refers to one that relies
primarily on image data (e.g. understanding where one is by comparing live captured image to previous
labelled image data). Relying on images alone for tracking in practice can be problematic due to changing
lighting conditions or weather effects. Thus, VPS can be combined and supplemented with other sensors
(and associated techniques) such as the GNSS and inertial sensors. In general, a VPS system must be able to
support the acquisition of the following:
— Complete or partial geometry of and information about the environment the user is operating in;
— Complete or partial geometry of and information about the objects in the environment the user is
operating in (their positions/orientations, object types, association to a map);
— Where the user is and in which direction the user is looking into the display.
As explained, VPS is one of the most critical system components in an MAR system and the VPS is often
employed because the typical customers use the mobile device (like the smart phone) equipped with cameras
as their main MAR platform. The VPS also can be associated and integrated well with the conventional maps
and navigation systems.
As can be understood from the conventional maps and navigation systems whose extent covers the entire
city, country and even earth, the VPS can also scale to such extent. The image based nature of VPS also lends
itself well to the ever-advancing computer vision and AI techniques for not only more robust and accurate
tracking but also further “intelligent” MAR services (e.g. facial recognition, navigation guidance based on
traffic analysis). Imagine that one was sight-seeing in Paris, and standing in front of the Eiffel tower. One
could take a picture of a landmark (like the Eiffel tower) and use it
...