ISO/TR 25145:2026

Technical
Report
ISO/TR 25145
First edition
Blockchain and distributed ledger
2026-02
technology (DLT) — Overview
of DLT-based collections and
collections management
Technologies des chaînes de blocs et technologies de registre
distribué (DLT) — Vue d'ensemble des collections basées sur la
DLT et gestion des collections
Reference number
© ISO 2026
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ii
Contents Page
Foreword .iv
Introduction .v
1 Scope . 1
2 Normative references . 1
3 Terms and definitions . 1
4 Introduction of DLT-based collections . 2
5 Use cases of DLT-based collections . 3
5.1 Music industry .3
5.2 Sport industry .3
5.3 Art industry.3
5.4 Antique industry .4
6 Intrinsic attributes of DLT-based collection . 4
7 Smart contract implementation considerations . 5
7.1 Roles .5
7.2 Typical service procedure .5
7.3 Basic operations .8
7.3.1 DLT-based collection creation .8
7.3.2 DLT-based collection issuance .8
7.3.3 DLT-based collection transferring .8
7.3.4 DLT-based collection updating.9
7.3.5 DLT-based collection verification .9
7.3.6 DLT-based collection retrieving .9
7.4 Interoperability.10
7.5 Risk analysis and control .10
7.5.1 Content risk .10
7.5.2 Copyright risks.11
7.5.3 Risk control rules in smart contracts .11
7.5.4 Dispute resolution .11
7.5.5 Authorization checks .11
7.5.6 Other risks .11
7.6 Cybersecurity . 12
7.6.1 General . 12
7.6.2 Data encryption. 12
7.6.3 Smart contract security . 12
7.6.4 Access control . 12
7.6.5 Network security . 12
7.6.6 Security monitoring and incident response . 13
Bibliography . 14

iii
Foreword
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This document was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 307, Blockchain and distributed ledger
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iv
Introduction
Difficulties are encountered in the conventional trade of collections when the collections:
— involve lots of work;
— involve multiple creators and collectors who operate in different environments;
— lack robust value protections.
Distributed ledger technology (DLT)-based collections utilize blockchain and DLTs to enable on-ledger
generation and management of either digital or physical collections, e.g. gaming artwork and antiques.
The following benefits can be achieved:
— preventing the unwanted and unwelcome copying and dissemination of the collections;
— providing effective authentication;
— providing proof of ownership for collections with non-reproducible attributes;
— ensuring the uniqueness and scarcity of collections and avoiding unauthorized issuance or unlimited
duplication of them;
— connecting diverse collections and expediting the development of a marketplace for collection trading.
A DLT solution is not necessarily a replacement for traditional ones. Both approaches can be used
collaboratively to allow stakeholders to benefit from their strong features and compensate for weaknesses.
For example, protecting the rights of the numerous creators who post on the popular social networks:
collaboration and integration of DLT with the social network platforms and their existing authorship
protection mechanisms. Realistically, collaboration with other approaches is the only way forward for DLT-
based collection management.
v
Technical Report ISO/TR 25145:2026(en)
Blockchain and distributed ledger technology (DLT) —
Overview of DLT-based collections and collections
management
1 Scope
This document provides an overview of DLT-based collections of physical and digital items as well as
collections management. This document discusses implementation considerations regarding DLT-based
collections and collections management.
2 Normative references
There are no normative references in this document.
3 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.
ISO and IEC maintain terminology databases for use in standardization at the following addresses:
— ISO Online browsing platform: available at https:// www .iso .org/ obp
— IEC Electropedia: available at https:// www .electropedia .org/
3.1
blockchain
distributed ledger with confirmed blocks organized in an append-only, sequential chain using cryptographic
links
Note 1 to entry: Blockchains are designed to be tamper resistant and to create final, definitive and immutable ledger
records.
[SOURCE: ISO 22739:2024, 3.6, modified — The term "hash links" has been replaced with "cryptographic
links" and Note 1 to entry has been added.]
3.2
collection
group of assets of the same sort that have been brought together
3.3
DLT
distributed ledger technology
technology that enables the operation and use of distributed ledgers
[SOURCE: ISO 22739:2024, 3.25]

3.4
collection management
all practices and procedures implemented by a blockchain and distributed ledger technology in acquiring,
documenting, handling, accessing and disposing of collection objects
[SOURCE: ISO 18461:2016, 2.5.10 modified — The term “museum” has been replaced with “blockchain and
distributed ledger technology” and the phrase “cataloguing, storing, securing, lending, conserving” has been
deleted]
3.5
DLT-based collection
digital or physical collection (3.2) that utilizes blockchain (3.1) and distributed ledger technologies (3.3) to
enable on-chain generation or management
3.6
smart contract
computer program stored in a distributed ledger technology (DLT) system wherein the outcome of any
execution of the program is recorded on the distributed ledger
Note 1 to entry: A smart contract can represent terms in a contract in law and create a legally enforceable obligation
under the legislation of an applicable jurisdiction.
[SOURCE: ISO 22739:2024, 3.88]
4 Introduction of DLT-based collections
Collections and collection items are traditionally sold through offline auctions or art brokerage agency sales.
This means the trading channels and audience are limited even when this is not explicitly required by laws
or regulations.
DLT-based collection management offers an alternative way of managing collections and trading collection
items that:
— does not rely on intermediaries (e.g. government or designated institutions);
— ensures that the recorded information is tamper-evident;
— helps to reach wide audience;
— provides more control and privacy to the collection owners.
An example of a DLT-based collection is illustrated in Figure 1. Each DLT-based collection is linked to physical
or digital valuable items and the link information is recorded on the DLT platform. Also, the subsequent
circulation (e.g. trade, transfer of ownership, transfer of an item to another collection) is executed on the
DLT platform through a smart contract.

Figure 1 — Example of DLT-based collection
Properly configured and managed DLT platforms, possibly collaborating with traditional solutions, can help
verify collections and collection items and counteract fraud and illicit trade. It can also record authorship,
ownership and ownership transfers and persistently link collection items with the attributes. This enables
collections to be bought and ensures uniqueness and scarcity. The DLT platform can help to expand the
market for creators and collectors so they can reach a significantly wider audience.
5 Use cases of DLT-based collections
5.1 Music industry
Through DLT, music creation and songs are linked to DLT-based collection with limited quantities.
For example, the US band Kings of Leon launched the music DLT-based collection “NFT yourself" based on
their physical album “When you see yourself”. The album DLT-based collection includes a limited edition of
the album's cover and a limited edition of the album's electronic assets.
The information traceability of DLT provides some royalties to the creators of the music DLT-based collection,
in particular each time a piece of music from a DLT-based collection is further exchanged.
5.2 Sport industry
Through DLT, sports merchandise, including match tickets, collectible cards and other fan-related items,
is made into DLT-based collections and then issued in limited quantities to meet the requirement of a new
generation of fans.
For example, the National Basketball Association (NBA) top shot moment produced by Dapper Labs is a
famous sport-category DLT-based collection.
The introduction of DLT undoubtedly brings a new service mode to the sports field. It not only converts
physical items into digital goods and reduces the unnecessary waste of resources, it also further meets
growing consumer demand. What is more, sports projects use sports intellectual property to attract
participants and investors, which effectively promotes the concept of digital collection to the public.
5.3 Art industry
At present, there are several art-category DLT-based collection solutions that allow artists and collectors to
arrange their digital artworks into DLT-based collections and auction them. The art DLT-based collection is
used for collecting, displaying or selling on the platform.

For example, SuperRare is the typical art digital collection platform and has gathered the world's top digital
artists and digital art works.
In the area of artwork, DLT protects the rights of creators and owners and supports the trade of collections
and collection items. The DLT makes a clear distinction between utilization and ownership and boosts trade
in collections and collection items. This helps creators, especially individual creators, avoid the high cost of
offline marketing and distribution. Also, creators and owners are able to earn more through transparent,
automatic royalty payments triggered on every secondary-market resale. For auction houses, DLT solutions
help to verify the provenance and authenticity of artworks. For collectors, DLT ensures the authenticity of
works and extends the usable life of artworks.
5.4 Antique industry
Antique collecting is another field where the value of items often depends on their scarcity, historical
background and authenticity. DLT provides entirely new solutions for antique collecting. Recording detailed
information about antiques (e.g. age, provenance, restoration records) on the DLT ensures the immutability
and traceability of this information. For example, an antique auction house uses DLT to create a digital
certificate for each antique; it documents its complete chain of custody from the time it was unearthed to its
current owner. Collectors can easily verify the authenticity and provenance of the antiques through the DLT
platform, and thus have more confidence in their purchases and collections. In addition, DLT allows antique
owners to display and trade their antiques more conveniently. It also allows more people to appreciate
precious cultural heritages through digital exhibitions.
6 Intrinsic attributes of DLT-based collection
DLT-based digital collections primarily serve as the inventories of the collections and collection items that
enable proper collection management and use. In some cases, digital collections can be recorded on-ledger.
The desired attributes of DLT-based digital collections are illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2 — Intrinsic attributes of DLT-based collection
— Unique identification of collections: Each digital collection has a unique identifier on a specific DLT, which
can represent a digital or real-world asset object.
— Integrity: DLT solution prevents unauthorized changes in the registered information that describes a
collection and its composition.
— Tamper-resistant: The digital collection's own attributes, ownership information, historical transaction
records and other information are stored in the tamper resistant DLT structure.
— Verifiability: Policy-based openness and transparency of the information recorded on the DLT system
allows the authorized users to query and verify the ownership and other information related to digital
collection items.
— Decentralization: When the issue and trade of digital collection relies on decentralized networks, the
need for third-party intermediaries and corresponding extra costs and delays can be reduced.

7 Smart contract implementation considerations
7.1 Roles
There are various roles in the DLT-based collection system, and smart contracts enable each role to
register an on-ledger account with its own specific set of operational permissions. Smart contracts provide
a registration interface and support different types of accounts, which grants them various functional
permissions. Smart contracts ensure that every operation is executed through the transaction signature of
the account holder, which ensures that the individual's will is correctly and indelibly expressed.
— Issuer: Entities such as museums or intellectual property (IP) holders, who possess the ownership of the
collections. Issuers initiate the application for the issuance of digital collections via smart contracts and
upload critical information such as details about the collections and the planned issuance quantity. Upon
review and approval by the smart contract, issuers initiate the process of issuing DLT-based collections.
— DLT platform administrators: Administrators have the authority for collection issuance approval. The
smart contract enables the DLT platform administrators to set the assessment rules for collection
issuance. Additionally, the smart contract enables the administrators to assign or change operating
permissions for issuers and collectors.
— Third-party audit institutions: This role has the authority to conduct auditing on collection issuance
request. The smart contract provides the interface for third-party audit institutions or an off-ledger
system, so that they can review the copyright and rule conformance information of the submitted request
and decide whether to approve the proposal.
— Collectors: As general users (or enthusiasts), collectors can own DLT-based collections through
participation in activities. Smart contracts provide functions related to collection management activities,
e.g. purchase, transferring, transaction.
The smart contract’s application programming interface acts as the entry point for all roles. Its code
automates permission management and enforces every transaction and approval process according to
predefined rules. This enhances transparency and efficiency, while reducing the risk of human error and
fraud.
The smart contract can behave in an erroneous and unexpected manner. This can occur due to bugs in the
code or unforeseen interactions with other contracts. A caveat event about smart contract execution can be
added.
These roles can vary significantly depending on the specific system design and implementation. For example,
the governance model for some DLT systems does not enable third-party auditing.
7.2 Typical service procedure
The procedure between the roles and a smart contract is illustrated in Figure 3. This procedure is not
universally applicable to all types of DLT-based collections. In practice, it can be adjusted or tailored to
better fit the specific requirements and characteristics of different collections.

Figure 3 — Interactions between the roles and a smart contract
First, the identity registration on the DLT system via smart contract involves multiple roles, e.g. issuers,
DLT platform administrators, third-party audit institution
...